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Blockchain and web3
cross-chain-bridge
cross-chain bridge
Wormhole
System
Techniques · 12
Primitives · 49
cross-chain-bridge
Merkle patricia trie
data-structures · medium: Hex-ary Patricia trie with hashed nodes giving state roots and inclusion proofs
Model checking and formal proof
embedded · medium: Exhaustively explore a model's reachable states (or prove its invariants with a solver or proof assistant) to find rule violations with a shortest counterexample trace.
›
Light client verification
finance · medium: Verify another chain's headers and state proofs from its consensus signatures
Reorg safe chain indexing
finance · medium: Index blockchain events with confirmation depth, reorg rollback and finality tracking
Bls signature aggregation
security · medium: BLS pairing-based signatures that aggregate many signers into one constant-size signature
Hardware security module (HSM)
security · medium: A tamper-resistant device or service that generates keys, signs, decrypts and wraps with them internally, and releases a key only as ciphertext.
›
Threshold cryptography
security · medium: Distributed key generation and t-of-n threshold decryption or signing without a single key holder
Merkle tree
data-structures · low: Hash tree for verifying and diffing large datasets with logarithmic proofs
Deterministic serialization
finance · low: Canonical byte encodings (RLP, SSZ, canonical CBOR) so every node hashes identical bytes
Idempotency keys
finance · low: Client-chosen unique key per logical operation, stored with a request fingerprint and the final response, so retries replay the first result instead of acting twice.
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Reconciliation
finance · low: Match internal ledger records against bank and processor statements by reference, then amount and date window; every unmatched or mismatched item becomes an exception.
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ECDSA signatures
security · low: The elliptic-curve signature standardised in FIPS 186-5 (P-256) and used by secp256k1 ledgers; 64-byte signatures, but a repeated or biased nonce leaks the private key.
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Replay protection window
security · low: A highest-seen counter plus a bitmap of the last W numbers rejects duplicates and stale messages in O(1) with a few hundred bytes of state.
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Circuit breaker
systems · low: Stop calling a failing dependency for a while, probe it with trial calls, and resume on recovery: fail fast instead of piling up timeouts.
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Token bucket
systems · low: A bucket of up to b tokens refilled at rate r; requests spend tokens, enforcing an average rate while allowing bursts of b.
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Radix trie
data-structures · low: Compressed prefix tree for path routing, domain matching and prefix lookups
Keccak sha3
security · low: Keccak sponge (SHA-3, Keccak-256) permutation, padding and absorb/squeeze
Swiss table
data-structures · low: Open-addressing hash table that filters 8-16 slots at once with 1-byte hash tags and SIMD, giving fast lookups at 87.5 % load.
›
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
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Binary decision diagrams
optimization · low: A reduced ordered BDD stores a Boolean function as a shared DAG that is unique per variable order, so equivalence is one integer compare and counting is one pass.
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Digital signatures (Ed25519)
security · low: Small, fast, deterministic public-key signatures that prove who produced a message; the default for tokens, releases and protocols.
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Message sequence numbers
distributed · low: A per-stream counter on every message lets the receiver detect loss, duplicates and reordering, ack cheaply and resume after reconnect with "send from N".
›
Journaled state revert
storage · low: Undo journal of state writes enabling nested checkpoints and cheap revert
+ 5 more techniques
+ 33 more primitives
System
Techniques · 12
Primitives · 49
cross-chain-bridge
Merkle patricia trie
data-structures · medium: Hex-ary Patricia trie with hashed nodes giving state roots and inclusion proofs
Model checking and formal proof
embedded · medium: Exhaustively explore a model's reachable states (or prove its invariants with a solver or proof assistant) to find rule violations with a shortest counterexample trace.
›
Light client verification
finance · medium: Verify another chain's headers and state proofs from its consensus signatures
Reorg safe chain indexing
finance · medium: Index blockchain events with confirmation depth, reorg rollback and finality tracking
Bls signature aggregation
security · medium: BLS pairing-based signatures that aggregate many signers into one constant-size signature
Hardware security module (HSM)
security · medium: A tamper-resistant device or service that generates keys, signs, decrypts and wraps with them internally, and releases a key only as ciphertext.
›
Threshold cryptography
security · medium: Distributed key generation and t-of-n threshold decryption or signing without a single key holder
CDCL SAT solving
optimization · medium: Search for a satisfying assignment, learn a new constraint from every dead end, and jump back past irrelevant choices; handles industrial formulas with millions of clauses.
›
Dpll t
optimization · medium: SMT architecture: CDCL over boolean abstraction plus theory solvers, theory propagation, Nelson-Oppen
Pairing based cryptography
security · medium: Bilinear pairings on BN254/BLS12-381 curves: Miller loop and final exponentiation
Congruence closure
compilers · medium: Union-find over terms with congruence propagation; decides equality with uninterpreted functions
Bit blasting
optimization · medium: Reduce bit-vector constraints to CNF via adder, multiplier and comparator circuits
Merkle tree
data-structures · low: Hash tree for verifying and diffing large datasets with logarithmic proofs
Deterministic serialization
finance · low: Canonical byte encodings (RLP, SSZ, canonical CBOR) so every node hashes identical bytes
Idempotency keys
finance · low: Client-chosen unique key per logical operation, stored with a request fingerprint and the final response, so retries replay the first result instead of acting twice.
›
Reconciliation
finance · low: Match internal ledger records against bank and processor statements by reference, then amount and date window; every unmatched or mismatched item becomes an exception.
›
ECDSA signatures
security · low: The elliptic-curve signature standardised in FIPS 186-5 (P-256) and used by secp256k1 ledgers; 64-byte signatures, but a repeated or biased nonce leaks the private key.
›
Replay protection window
security · low: A highest-seen counter plus a bitmap of the last W numbers rejects duplicates and stale messages in O(1) with a few hundred bytes of state.
›
Circuit breaker
systems · low: Stop calling a failing dependency for a while, probe it with trial calls, and resume on recovery: fail fast instead of piling up timeouts.
›
Token bucket
systems · low: A bucket of up to b tokens refilled at rate r; requests spend tokens, enforcing an average rate while allowing bursts of b.
›
Radix trie
data-structures · low: Compressed prefix tree for path routing, domain matching and prefix lookups
Keccak sha3
security · low: Keccak sponge (SHA-3, Keccak-256) permutation, padding and absorb/squeeze
Swiss table
data-structures · low: Open-addressing hash table that filters 8-16 slots at once with 1-byte hash tags and SIMD, giving fast lookups at 87.5 % load.
›
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
›
Binary decision diagrams
optimization · low: A reduced ordered BDD stores a Boolean function as a shared DAG that is unique per variable order, so equivalence is one integer compare and counting is one pass.
›
Digital signatures (Ed25519)
security · low: Small, fast, deterministic public-key signatures that prove who produced a message; the default for tokens, releases and protocols.
›
Message sequence numbers
distributed · low: A per-stream counter on every message lets the receiver detect loss, duplicates and reordering, ack cheaply and resume after reconnect with "send from N".
›
Journaled state revert
storage · low: Undo journal of state writes enabling nested checkpoints and cheap revert
Elliptic curve arithmetic
security · low: Point addition, doubling and constant-time scalar multiplication in projective coordinates
Multi scalar multiplication
security · low: Pippenger bucket method for large multi-scalar multiplications on elliptic curves
Aes key wrap
security · low: AES Key Wrap (RFC 3394/5649) and AES-GCM-SIV for deterministic, authenticated wrapping of key material
Csprng
security · low: OS-backed cryptographically secure random numbers (getrandom), and when a fast PRNG is not enough
Dual control approval
security · low: Four-eyes / maker-checker approval with quorum policies for sensitive operations
Secure memory zeroization
security · low: Keep secrets in one locked, fixed-size, non-copyable region, erase them with writes the compiler must keep, and exclude them from dumps and swap.
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Commitment schemes
security · low: Hash and Pedersen commitments: hide a value now, bind to it, reveal later
Shamir secret sharing (k-of-n)
security · low: Split a secret into n shares so any k reconstruct it and any k-1 reveal nothing at all, using a random polynomial over a finite field.
›
Sigma protocols
security · low: Schnorr and Chaum-Pedersen proofs of knowledge, OR-proofs for ballot validity
d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
›
Drat proof certificates
optimization · low: DRAT and LRAT proofs emitted by SAT solvers and checked independently
Two watched literals
optimization · low: Unit propagation for SAT that watches just two literals per clause, so backtracking costs nothing and long clauses are rarely touched.
›
Arena allocator
systems · low: Allocate by bumping a pointer through big chunks and free everything at once: a few instructions per allocation for objects sharing a lifetime.
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Simplex method
optimization · low: Solves linear programs by walking along the edges of the feasible polytope from vertex to vertex, one basis swap (pivot) at a time; the workhorse behind MIP solvers.
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Big integer arithmetic
numerics · low: Multi-limb integer arithmetic (256-bit and up): carries, Karatsuba, Montgomery and Barrett reduction
Finite field arithmetic
numerics · low: Prime-field and extension-field arithmetic (Montgomery form, Goldilocks, BabyBear), vectorized
Hash consing
data-structures · low: Intern structurally equal immutable terms so equality is pointer comparison and sharing is maximal
Union-find
graphs · low: Disjoint-set forest with union by size and path compression; merges sets and answers same-set queries in effectively constant time.
›
Arithmetic circuits
hardware-os · low: Adder and multiplier circuits: carry-lookahead, prefix adders, Booth encoding, Wallace and Dadda trees
Tseitin transformation
optimization · low: Linear-size CNF encoding of formulas with auxiliary variables
Fencing tokens
distributed · low: A number that grows with every lock grant and is checked by the protected resource, so a paused ex-holder's late write is rejected.
›
Leases
distributed · low: A lock that expires on its own: bounded-time ownership that survives crashes and partitions, given bounded clock drift and fencing tokens on writes.
›
Double-entry ledger
finance · low: Append-only journal of transactions whose postings sum to zero per currency; balances are derived, so money can only move, never appear or vanish.
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Largest remainder rounding
finance · low: Splitting an amount into parts that sum exactly (largest remainder / Hamilton) for allocations, splits and prorations
Money representation
finance · low: Store money as integer minor units with an explicit currency exponent, compute in wider integers, and round once with a named rounding mode.
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Floating-point error
numerics · low: How IEEE 754 rounding error accumulates and how to contain it: compensated (Kahan/Neumaier) and pairwise summation, error-free transformations with FMA, ULP comparisons.
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LU and Cholesky factorization
numerics · low: Factor A = PLU (any square matrix, partial pivoting) or A = LLᵀ (SPD) once in O(n³), then solve each right-hand side in O(n²).
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PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
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Sparse matrices (CSR)
numerics · low: Compressed sparse row stores only nonzeros as row pointers, column indices and values; SpMV streams them once, so it is memory-bandwidth bound.
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Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
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Hash join
storage · low: Build a hash table on the smaller input's join key and probe it with every row of the larger one; the linear-time workhorse for equi-joins.
›
Exponential backoff with jitter
systems · low: Retry after delays that grow geometrically and are randomized, so failed clients spread out instead of hammering a recovering service in synchronized waves.
›
Sliding-window counters
systems · low: Count events in the last W seconds with a ring of sub-bucket counters; the two-bucket weighted estimate gives rate limits in 16 bytes per key.
›
Copy for AI
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