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Blockchain and web3
blockchain
blockchain node with consensus
Ethereum, Bitcoin
System
Techniques · 9
Primitives · 26
blockchain
Merkle patricia trie
data-structures · medium: Hex-ary Patricia trie with hashed nodes giving state roots and inclusion proofs
Bft consensus
distributed · medium: Byzantine fault tolerant consensus (PBFT, Tendermint, HotStuff) with 3f+1 replicas and quorum certificates
Epidemic broadcast
distributed · medium: Gossip-based message dissemination (push/pull, gossipsub mesh) with bounded fan-out
Fork choice rule
distributed · medium: Pick the canonical chain head (longest chain, LMD-GHOST) and finalize with checkpoint votes
Kademlia dht
distributed · medium: XOR-metric DHT with k-buckets and iterative parallel lookups
Nakamoto consensus
distributed · medium: Proof-of-work longest-chain consensus: difficulty adjustment, orphan handling, confirmations
Bls signature aggregation
security · medium: BLS pairing-based signatures that aggregate many signers into one constant-size signature
Merkle tree
data-structures · low: Hash tree for verifying and diffing large datasets with logarithmic proofs
Deterministic serialization
finance · low: Canonical byte encodings (RLP, SSZ, canonical CBOR) so every node hashes identical bytes
Keccak sha3
security · low: Keccak sponge (SHA-3, Keccak-256) permutation, padding and absorb/squeeze
Bloom filter
data-structures · low: Bit array answering "definitely not present" or "probably present" in about 10 bits per key for 1 % false positives; inserts are cheap, deletes impossible.
›
Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
›
ECDSA signatures
security · low: The elliptic-curve signature standardised in FIPS 186-5 (P-256) and used by secp256k1 ledgers; 64-byte signatures, but a repeated or biased nonce leaks the private key.
›
Elliptic curve arithmetic
security · low: Point addition, doubling and constant-time scalar multiplication in projective coordinates
d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
›
Noise protocol
security · low: Noise framework handshakes (IK, XX): DH patterns, chaining keys, transport ciphers
Radix trie
data-structures · low: Compressed prefix tree for path routing, domain matching and prefix lookups
Digital signatures (Ed25519)
security · low: Small, fast, deterministic public-key signatures that prove who produced a message; the default for tokens, releases and protocols.
›
Message authentication codes (HMAC,…
security · low: A keyed short tag proving a message is unmodified and came from a key holder; pick HMAC, CMAC, KMAC or a one-time polynomial MAC by what primitive you already have.
›
Write-ahead log
storage · low: Append each change to a checksummed sequential log and fsync it before touching data pages; the basis of crash durability in nearly every database.
›
Event deduplication window
distributed · low: Keep the ids of recently accepted events for a time window and drop repeats; memory stays bounded by rotating time buckets instead of per-entry timers.
›
Message sequence numbers
distributed · low: A per-stream counter on every message lets the receiver detect loss, duplicates and reordering, ack cheaply and resume after reconnect with "send from N".
›
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
›
+ 2 more techniques
+ 10 more primitives
System
Techniques · 9
Primitives · 26
blockchain
Merkle patricia trie
data-structures · medium: Hex-ary Patricia trie with hashed nodes giving state roots and inclusion proofs
Bft consensus
distributed · medium: Byzantine fault tolerant consensus (PBFT, Tendermint, HotStuff) with 3f+1 replicas and quorum certificates
Epidemic broadcast
distributed · medium: Gossip-based message dissemination (push/pull, gossipsub mesh) with bounded fan-out
Fork choice rule
distributed · medium: Pick the canonical chain head (longest chain, LMD-GHOST) and finalize with checkpoint votes
Kademlia dht
distributed · medium: XOR-metric DHT with k-buckets and iterative parallel lookups
Nakamoto consensus
distributed · medium: Proof-of-work longest-chain consensus: difficulty adjustment, orphan handling, confirmations
Bls signature aggregation
security · medium: BLS pairing-based signatures that aggregate many signers into one constant-size signature
LSM-tree
storage · medium: Buffer writes in memory, flush them as immutable sorted files and merge in the background; turns random writes into sequential I/O.
›
Pairing based cryptography
security · medium: Bilinear pairings on BN254/BLS12-381 curves: Miller loop and final exponentiation
Merkle tree
data-structures · low: Hash tree for verifying and diffing large datasets with logarithmic proofs
Deterministic serialization
finance · low: Canonical byte encodings (RLP, SSZ, canonical CBOR) so every node hashes identical bytes
Keccak sha3
security · low: Keccak sponge (SHA-3, Keccak-256) permutation, padding and absorb/squeeze
Bloom filter
data-structures · low: Bit array answering "definitely not present" or "probably present" in about 10 bits per key for 1 % false positives; inserts are cheap, deletes impossible.
›
Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
›
ECDSA signatures
security · low: The elliptic-curve signature standardised in FIPS 186-5 (P-256) and used by secp256k1 ledgers; 64-byte signatures, but a repeated or biased nonce leaks the private key.
›
Elliptic curve arithmetic
security · low: Point addition, doubling and constant-time scalar multiplication in projective coordinates
d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
›
Noise protocol
security · low: Noise framework handshakes (IK, XX): DH patterns, chaining keys, transport ciphers
Radix trie
data-structures · low: Compressed prefix tree for path routing, domain matching and prefix lookups
Digital signatures (Ed25519)
security · low: Small, fast, deterministic public-key signatures that prove who produced a message; the default for tokens, releases and protocols.
›
Message authentication codes (HMAC,…
security · low: A keyed short tag proving a message is unmodified and came from a key holder; pick HMAC, CMAC, KMAC or a one-time polynomial MAC by what primitive you already have.
›
Write-ahead log
storage · low: Append each change to a checksummed sequential log and fsync it before touching data pages; the basis of crash durability in nearly every database.
›
Event deduplication window
distributed · low: Keep the ids of recently accepted events for a time window and drop repeats; memory stays bounded by rotating time buckets instead of per-entry timers.
›
Message sequence numbers
distributed · low: A per-stream counter on every message lets the receiver detect loss, duplicates and reordering, ack cheaply and resume after reconnect with "send from N".
›
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
›
Reliable UDP
game-networking · low: Transport over UDP: each packet carries a sequence number, an ack and a 32-bit ack history; only chosen messages are made reliable.
›
LRU and CLOCK
systems · low: LRU evicts the least recently used entry via hash map plus linked list; CLOCK approximates it with a reference bit, so hits take no lock.
›
Multi scalar multiplication
security · low: Pippenger bucket method for large multi-scalar multiplications on elliptic curves
Big integer arithmetic
numerics · low: Multi-limb integer arithmetic (256-bit and up): carries, Karatsuba, Montgomery and Barrett reduction
Finite field arithmetic
numerics · low: Prime-field and extension-field arithmetic (Montgomery form, Goldilocks, BabyBear), vectorized
Bitstream serialization
game-networking · low: A bit writer and reader over a byte buffer that stores each field in exactly the bits its range needs: booleans in 1 bit, bounded integers in ceil(log2(span+1)) bits.
›
CRC32C checksums
hardware-os · low: The Castagnoli CRC-32 with dedicated instructions on x86 (SSE4.2) and ARMv8. It is the standard fast integrity check for storage blocks, logs and network frames.
›
fsync, O_DSYNC and O_DIRECT
hardware-os · low: What fsync, fdatasync, O_DSYNC, O_DIRECT and F_FULLFSYNC really guarantee on Linux and macOS, and the exact call sequences for crash-safe files.
›
SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
›
Sparse matrices (CSR)
numerics · low: Compressed sparse row stores only nonzeros as row pointers, column indices and values; SpMV streams them once, so it is memory-bandwidth bound.
›
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