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Blockchain and web3
content-addressed-storage
content-addressed storage
IPFS
System
Techniques · 15
Primitives · 58
content-addressed-stora…
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Epidemic broadcast
distributed · medium: Gossip-based message dissemination (push/pull, gossipsub mesh) with bounded fan-out
Kademlia dht
distributed · medium: XOR-metric DHT with k-buckets and iterative parallel lookups
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
NAT traversal (STUN, ICE, TURN)
media · medium: Learn your public address with STUN, swap candidate addresses over signalling, test pairs with ICE checks, and fall back to a TURN relay if no direct path works.
›
QUIC
networking · medium: Encrypted, multiplexed transport over UDP with 1-RTT setup, independent streams and connection migration; the transport of HTTP/3.
›
Coverage-guided fuzzing
security · medium: Mutate inputs, run an instrumented target, and keep any input that reaches a new code edge; feedback turns blind guessing into incremental search.
›
Bloom filter
data-structures · low: Bit array answering "definitely not present" or "probably present" in about 10 bits per key for 1 % false positives; inserts are cheap, deletes impossible.
›
Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
›
LRU and CLOCK
systems · low: LRU evicts the least recently used entry via hash map plus linked list; CLOCK approximates it with a reference bit, so hits take no lock.
›
Content defined chunking
compression · low: Rolling-hash chunk boundaries (Rabin, FastCDC) for deduplication that survives insertions
Varint (LEB128)
compression · low: Variable-length integers in 7-bit groups with a continuation bit; small numbers take 1 byte, the wire format of Protobuf, WebAssembly and DWARF.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Merkle tree
data-structures · low: Hash tree for verifying and diffing large datasets with logarithmic proofs
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
›
Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
›
Noise protocol
security · low: Noise framework handshakes (IK, XX): DH patterns, chaining keys, transport ciphers
Content-addressed storage
storage · low: Store each blob under the hash of its bytes: immutable, deduplicated by construction, self-verifying on every read, and composable into Merkle trees.
›
Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
›
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
Record replay
distributed · low: Record every nondeterministic input (time, randomness, I/O, model and tool outputs, per-tick player input) and re-execute deterministically for debugging, replays and state rebuild
PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
›
Event deduplication window
distributed · low: Keep the ids of recently accepted events for a time window and drop repeats; memory stays bounded by rotating time buckets instead of per-entry timers.
›
+ 8 more techniques
+ 42 more primitives
System
Techniques · 15
Primitives · 58
content-addressed-stora…
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Epidemic broadcast
distributed · medium: Gossip-based message dissemination (push/pull, gossipsub mesh) with bounded fan-out
Kademlia dht
distributed · medium: XOR-metric DHT with k-buckets and iterative parallel lookups
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
NAT traversal (STUN, ICE, TURN)
media · medium: Learn your public address with STUN, swap candidate addresses over signalling, test pairs with ICE checks, and fall back to a TURN relay if no direct path works.
›
QUIC
networking · medium: Encrypted, multiplexed transport over UDP with 1-RTT setup, independent streams and connection migration; the transport of HTTP/3.
›
Coverage-guided fuzzing
security · medium: Mutate inputs, run an instrumented target, and keep any input that reaches a new code edge; feedback turns blind guessing into incremental search.
›
LSM-tree
storage · medium: Buffer writes in memory, flush them as immutable sorted files and merge in the background; turns random writes into sequential I/O.
›
Point-in-time recovery
storage · medium: Periodic base backups plus a continuously archived change log let you rebuild the state as of any instant, then branch from there.
›
Delta debugging
compilers · medium: Ddmin minimization of failing inputs or change sets
Fault injection
distributed · medium: Inject latency, errors, kills and partitions via proxies, netem or hooks
TLS 1.3
security · medium: The standard encrypted, authenticated transport; one round trip, only forward-secret AEAD suites, and little left to misconfigure.
›
ARIES recovery
storage · medium: Three-pass crash recovery (analysis, redo, undo) for steal/no-force buffer pools; repeats history, then rolls back losers with compensation log records.
›
Syscall interception
security · medium: Intercept syscalls via ptrace, seccomp user notify or a user-space kernel
Buffer pool
storage · medium: The database's own page cache (frames, page table, pin counts, dirty bits, replacement) so it, not the OS, controls eviction, write order and I/O.
›
Bloom filter
data-structures · low: Bit array answering "definitely not present" or "probably present" in about 10 bits per key for 1 % false positives; inserts are cheap, deletes impossible.
›
Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
›
LRU and CLOCK
systems · low: LRU evicts the least recently used entry via hash map plus linked list; CLOCK approximates it with a reference bit, so hits take no lock.
›
Content defined chunking
compression · low: Rolling-hash chunk boundaries (Rabin, FastCDC) for deduplication that survives insertions
Varint (LEB128)
compression · low: Variable-length integers in 7-bit groups with a continuation bit; small numbers take 1 byte, the wire format of Protobuf, WebAssembly and DWARF.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Merkle tree
data-structures · low: Hash tree for verifying and diffing large datasets with logarithmic proofs
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
›
Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
›
Noise protocol
security · low: Noise framework handshakes (IK, XX): DH patterns, chaining keys, transport ciphers
Content-addressed storage
storage · low: Store each blob under the hash of its bytes: immutable, deduplicated by construction, self-verifying on every read, and composable into Merkle trees.
›
Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
›
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
Record replay
distributed · low: Record every nondeterministic input (time, randomness, I/O, model and tool outputs, per-tick player input) and re-execute deterministically for debugging, replays and state rebuild
PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
›
Event deduplication window
distributed · low: Keep the ids of recently accepted events for a time window and drop repeats; memory stays bounded by rotating time buckets instead of per-entry timers.
›
Message sequence numbers
distributed · low: A per-stream counter on every message lets the receiver detect loss, duplicates and reordering, ack cheaply and resume after reconnect with "send from N".
›
Reliable UDP
game-networking · low: Transport over UDP: each packet carries a sequence number, an ack and a 32-bit ack history; only chosen messages are made reliable.
›
Leases
distributed · low: A lock that expires on its own: bounded-time ownership that survives crashes and partitions, given bounded clock drift and fencing tokens on writes.
›
Write-ahead log
storage · low: Append each change to a checksummed sequential log and fsync it before touching data pages; the basis of crash durability in nearly every database.
›
Health checking
systems · low: Decide per backend whether to route to it using probes and real-traffic errors, with consecutive-count hysteresis, capped ejection and a panic fallback.
›
Sdp offer answer
media · low: SDP session descriptions and offer/answer negotiation
Network address translation
networking · low: NAT mapping tables, endpoint-independent mapping/filtering, hairpinning and port allocation
Message authentication codes (HMAC,…
security · low: A keyed short tag proving a message is unmodified and came from a key holder; pick HMAC, CMAC, KMAC or a one-time polynomial MAC by what primitive you already have.
›
Exponential backoff with jitter
systems · low: Retry after delays that grow geometrically and are randomized, so failed clients spread out instead of hammering a recovering service in synchronized waves.
›
BBR congestion control
networking · low: Model-based congestion control that paces at the measured bottleneck bandwidth and caps inflight near one BDP, instead of reacting to loss.
›
Path mtu discovery
networking · low: PMTUD and PLPMTUD to size packets for tunnels without fragmentation
Selective repeat arq
networking · low: Selective-repeat ARQ with windows, status reports and in-order reassembly
AEAD (AES-GCM, ChaCha20-Poly1305)
security · low: Authenticated encryption that encrypts and detects tampering in one call; the only kind of symmetric encryption you should use.
›
Code coverage instrumentation
compilers · low: Insert counters into compiled code to record which blocks, edges or lines ran; a spanning tree of the control-flow graph cuts the counters needed.
›
Fast hash functions
data-structures · low: Non-cryptographic hashes built from 64×64→128-bit multiplies and xor-shifts; pick by key size, trust level and whether the hash is persisted.
›
Sanitizers
security · low: ASan/UBSan/TSan shadow memory and instrumentation to catch memory bugs
Object storage
cloud · low: S3-compatible blob storage at cents per GB-month with 11 nines durability; pick by egress price, request price and latency, not by storage price alone.
›
Copy on write snapshots
storage · low: Point-in-time snapshots by sharing pages/extents and copying only on write
Failure bisection
search-sort · low: Binary search over commits, batches or inputs to isolate a failure
Transparent interception
networking · low: Redirect traffic to a local proxy (iptables TPROXY/REDIRECT, eBPF) without app changes
ECDH key exchange (X25519, P-256)
security · low: Each side multiplies the other's public curve point by its own scalar and both get the same point; always validate the peer key and run the result through a KDF.
›
HKDF key derivation (extract-and-ex…
security · low: HMAC-based two-step key derivation: extract a uniform pseudorandom key from any secret, then expand it into as many context-bound keys as you need.
›
X509 certificates
security · low: Certificate chains, path validation, SANs, revocation and short-lived issuance
Ebpf
hardware-os · low: Verified in-kernel programs on hooks (kprobes, XDP, tc) with maps
Ptrace process control
hardware-os · low: Ptrace: attach, read and write registers and memory, single-step, intercept signals
Seccomp bpf
security · low: Syscall filtering with seccomp BPF programs
fsync, O_DSYNC and O_DIRECT
hardware-os · low: What fsync, fdatasync, O_DSYNC, O_DIRECT and F_FULLFSYNC really guarantee on Linux and macOS, and the exact call sequences for crash-safe files.
›
S3-FIFO
systems · low: Three FIFO queues (small, main, ghost) that evict one-hit wonders quickly and keep reused objects; low miss ratios with no list moves on hits.
›
Control-flow graph
compilers · low: Split a linear instruction list into basic blocks and connect them by jumps; the graph every optimizer, SSA builder and dataflow pass walks.
›
d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
›
Merkle dag
data-structures · low: Content-addressed DAG of hashed nodes (git trees/commits) for dedupe and verifiable history
Fencing tokens
distributed · low: A number that grows with every lock grant and is checked by the protected resource, so a paused ex-holder's late write is rejected.
›
Bitstream serialization
game-networking · low: A bit writer and reader over a byte buffer that stores each field in exactly the bits its range needs: booleans in 1 bit, bounded integers in ceil(log2(span+1)) bits.
›
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
›
Minimum spanning tree
graphs · low: Cheapest set of edges connecting all vertices; Kruskal sorts edges and joins components with union-find, Prim grows one tree, Boruvka merges in parallel rounds.
›
Union-find
graphs · low: Disjoint-set forest with union by size and path compression; merges sets and answers same-set queries in effectively constant time.
›
Atomic file replacement
hardware-os · low: Write temp file, fsync, rename over target, fsync directory: crash-safe whole-file updates
CRC32C checksums
hardware-os · low: The Castagnoli CRC-32 with dedicated instructions on x86 (SSE4.2) and ARMv8. It is the standard fast integrity check for storage blocks, logs and network frames.
›
SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
›
Sparse matrices (CSR)
numerics · low: Compressed sparse row stores only nonzeros as row pointers, column indices and values; SpMV streams them once, so it is memory-bandwidth bound.
›
Constant time code
security · low: Writing secret-dependent code without branches or memory lookups on secrets; constant-time compare and select
Csprng
security · low: OS-backed cryptographically secure random numbers (getrandom), and when a fast PRNG is not enough
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