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Energy, industry and public infrastructure
ground-station
satellite ground station
AWS Ground Station
System
Techniques · 7
Primitives · 33
ground-station
Clock synchronization
distributed · medium: Estimate a clock's offset from four timestamps, filter out queueing noise, and steer the clock smoothly; NTP gets about a millisecond, PTP with hardware timestamps under a microsecond.
›
Orbit propagation
numerics · medium: Propagate satellite orbits (Kepler, SGP4, numerical with perturbations) and frame transforms
Mixed-integer programming (branch a…
optimization · medium: Solves LPs with integer variables by solving the LP relaxation, branching on a fractional variable, and pruning subtrees whose LP bound cannot beat the incumbent.
›
Ldpc codes
signal-processing · medium: Low-density parity-check codes with soft-decision min-sum decoding, used in NAND flash
Spherical harmonic transform
numerics · medium: Fast spherical harmonic transforms via FFT in longitude and Legendre in latitude
Cutting planes
optimization · medium: Valid inequalities added to an LP relaxation to cut off its fractional optimum without removing any integer point; the engine of branch-and-cut MIP solvers.
›
Presolve reductions
optimization · medium: Cheap, provably safe reductions run before the solver (fix variables, drop rows, tighten bounds and coefficients) so LP and MIP solves start from a smaller, tighter model.
›
PID controller
robotics · low: Drive a measured value to a setpoint with three terms on the error: proportional, integral, derivative. The default feedback loop for motors, heaters, drones and gimbals.
›
Phase-locked loop (digital)
signal-processing · low: Feedback loop that locks a local oscillator to the phase and frequency of an input tone; the core of carrier recovery, clock recovery and GNSS tracking.
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SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
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Qam soft demapping
signal-processing · low: PSK/QAM constellation mapping and max-log LLR soft demapping for decoders
Object storage
cloud · low: S3-compatible blob storage at cents per GB-month with 11 nines durability; pick by egress price, request price and latency, not by storage price alone.
›
Interval tree
data-structures · low: Index of ranges that answers "which intervals overlap this point or range?" in O(log n + k); static sorted-array form is the compact, cache-friendly choice.
›
SPSC ring buffer
data-structures · low: Bounded wait-free queue for exactly one producer and one consumer thread, built from an array and two indices with acquire/release ordering.
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Ccsds space packets
networking · low: CCSDS space packet and transfer frame protocols: APIDs, sync markers, virtual channels
Message authentication codes (HMAC,…
security · low: A keyed short tag proving a message is unmodified and came from a key holder; pick HMAC, CMAC, KMAC or a one-time polynomial MAC by what primitive you already have.
›
Convolutional codes and the Viterbi…
signal-processing · low: Streaming error-correcting code: each output bit is a parity of the last K input bits; the Viterbi decoder finds the most likely path through a 2^(K-1)-state trellis.
›
Digital down conversion
signal-processing · low: NCO mixing to baseband, CIC/FIR decimation and IQ handling for SDR receivers
Reed-Solomon codes
signal-processing · low: Byte-oriented MDS code: n-k parity symbols correct (n-k)/2 unknown symbol errors or n-k known erasures; the workhorse for bursts, QR codes, discs and storage.
›
Symbol timing recovery
signal-processing · low: Gardner/Mueller-Muller timing error detectors with interpolators for symbol synchronization
Robust statistics
statistics · low: Location and scale estimates (median, MAD, trimmed mean, Huber M-estimator) that stay correct when a minority of the data is garbage.
›
Adaptive Runge-Kutta (Dormand-Princ…
numerics · low: An embedded 5(4) Runge-Kutta pair estimates each step's error for free and resizes the step to meet a tolerance; the default non-stiff solver.
›
Rigid-body transforms (SE(3) poses)
robotics · low: Represent, compose, invert, integrate and interpolate 3D poses as unit quaternion plus translation, with exp/log maps for small motions and uncertainty.
›
+ 17 more primitives
System
Techniques · 7
Primitives · 33
ground-station
Clock synchronization
distributed · medium: Estimate a clock's offset from four timestamps, filter out queueing noise, and steer the clock smoothly; NTP gets about a millisecond, PTP with hardware timestamps under a microsecond.
›
Orbit propagation
numerics · medium: Propagate satellite orbits (Kepler, SGP4, numerical with perturbations) and frame transforms
Mixed-integer programming (branch a…
optimization · medium: Solves LPs with integer variables by solving the LP relaxation, branching on a fractional variable, and pruning subtrees whose LP bound cannot beat the incumbent.
›
Ldpc codes
signal-processing · medium: Low-density parity-check codes with soft-decision min-sum decoding, used in NAND flash
Spherical harmonic transform
numerics · medium: Fast spherical harmonic transforms via FFT in longitude and Legendre in latitude
Cutting planes
optimization · medium: Valid inequalities added to an LP relaxation to cut off its fractional optimum without removing any integer point; the engine of branch-and-cut MIP solvers.
›
Presolve reductions
optimization · medium: Cheap, provably safe reductions run before the solver (fix variables, drop rows, tighten bounds and coefficients) so LP and MIP solves start from a smaller, tighter model.
›
PID controller
robotics · low: Drive a measured value to a setpoint with three terms on the error: proportional, integral, derivative. The default feedback loop for motors, heaters, drones and gimbals.
›
Phase-locked loop (digital)
signal-processing · low: Feedback loop that locks a local oscillator to the phase and frequency of an input tone; the core of carrier recovery, clock recovery and GNSS tracking.
›
SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
›
Qam soft demapping
signal-processing · low: PSK/QAM constellation mapping and max-log LLR soft demapping for decoders
Object storage
cloud · low: S3-compatible blob storage at cents per GB-month with 11 nines durability; pick by egress price, request price and latency, not by storage price alone.
›
Interval tree
data-structures · low: Index of ranges that answers "which intervals overlap this point or range?" in O(log n + k); static sorted-array form is the compact, cache-friendly choice.
›
SPSC ring buffer
data-structures · low: Bounded wait-free queue for exactly one producer and one consumer thread, built from an array and two indices with acquire/release ordering.
›
Ccsds space packets
networking · low: CCSDS space packet and transfer frame protocols: APIDs, sync markers, virtual channels
Message authentication codes (HMAC,…
security · low: A keyed short tag proving a message is unmodified and came from a key holder; pick HMAC, CMAC, KMAC or a one-time polynomial MAC by what primitive you already have.
›
Convolutional codes and the Viterbi…
signal-processing · low: Streaming error-correcting code: each output bit is a parity of the last K input bits; the Viterbi decoder finds the most likely path through a 2^(K-1)-state trellis.
›
Digital down conversion
signal-processing · low: NCO mixing to baseband, CIC/FIR decimation and IQ handling for SDR receivers
Reed-Solomon codes
signal-processing · low: Byte-oriented MDS code: n-k parity symbols correct (n-k)/2 unknown symbol errors or n-k known erasures; the workhorse for bursts, QR codes, discs and storage.
›
Symbol timing recovery
signal-processing · low: Gardner/Mueller-Muller timing error detectors with interpolators for symbol synchronization
Robust statistics
statistics · low: Location and scale estimates (median, MAD, trimmed mean, Huber M-estimator) that stay correct when a minority of the data is garbage.
›
Adaptive Runge-Kutta (Dormand-Princ…
numerics · low: An embedded 5(4) Runge-Kutta pair estimates each step's error for free and resizes the step to meet a tolerance; the default non-stiff solver.
›
Rigid-body transforms (SE(3) poses)
robotics · low: Represent, compose, invert, integrate and interpolate 3D poses as unit quaternion plus translation, with exp/log maps for small motions and uncertainty.
›
Calendar date arithmetic
systems · low: Civil dates, time zones (tzdb), DST gaps, month-end anchoring and duration math
d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
›
Simplex method
optimization · low: Solves linear programs by walking along the edges of the feasible polytope from vertex to vertex, one basis swap (pivot) at a time; the workhorse behind MIP solvers.
›
Sparse matrices (CSR)
numerics · low: Compressed sparse row stores only nonzeros as row pointers, column indices and values; SpMV streams them once, so it is memory-bandwidth bound.
›
Fast Fourier transform
numerics · low: Computes the DFT in O(n log n) by recursively splitting into even and odd halves; the basis of fast convolution and spectral methods.
›
Gaussian quadrature
numerics · low: Approximate an integral by a weighted sum of n function values at roots of orthogonal polynomials; exact for polynomials up to degree 2n-1.
›
Spherical grids
numerics · low: Lat-lon, cubed-sphere and icosahedral grids for global models; pole and area issues
Floating-point error
numerics · low: How IEEE 754 rounding error accumulates and how to contain it: compensated (Kahan/Neumaier) and pairwise summation, error-free transformations with FMA, ULP comparisons.
›
Fast hash functions
data-structures · low: Non-cryptographic hashes built from 64×64→128-bit multiplies and xor-shifts; pick by key size, trust level and whether the hash is persisted.
›
Interval arithmetic
numerics · low: Rigorous bounds with outward rounding; root isolation and robust geometric tests
False sharing
concurrency · low: Independent variables written by different cores on one cache line force the line to bounce between cores; pad or regroup hot data to fix it.
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Memory ordering
concurrency · low: What Relaxed, Acquire, Release and SeqCst atomics actually guarantee, what they cost on x86 and ARM, and which one each pattern needs.
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Homogeneous transforms
geometry · low: 4x4 affine and projective matrices, homogeneous coordinates, view and projection, normal matrices
Quaternion rotations
geometry · low: Unit quaternions as 3D rotations: 4 floats, cheap composition, no gimbal lock, plus the conversions, interpolation choices and numerical care needed in practice.
›
CPU caches and the memory hierarchy
hardware-os · low: Sizes, line widths and latencies of L1/L2/L3/DRAM on modern x86 and Apple M-series, and the data-layout rules that follow from them.
›
LU and Cholesky factorization
numerics · low: Factor A = PLU (any square matrix, partial pivoting) or A = LLᵀ (SPD) once in O(n³), then solve each right-hand side in O(n²).
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Runge-Kutta 4
numerics · low: The classic four-stage, fourth-order ODE step; error drops 16× when the step halves, with no derivatives or past steps needed.
›
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