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website-builder
hosted website builder
Webflow, Wix
System
Techniques · 43
Primitives · 95
website-builder
CDN and edge
cloud · medium: CDNs cache content in hundreds of PoPs near users, cutting latency and egress bills; edge compute runs small code there. Bandwidth price spreads 10x between providers.
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Minification name mangling
compilers · medium: Shrink JS by renaming locals, constant folding and dead branch removal, respecting scope
Template engines
compilers · medium: Compile templates with loops, partials and auto-escaping into render functions
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
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Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
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Code splitting lazy loading
graphics · medium: Split bundles at dynamic imports, load chunks on demand, preload critical paths
Css cascade inheritance
graphics · medium: Resolve computed styles: origin and specificity ordering, inheritance, custom properties
HTTP caching semantics
networking · low: The rules (RFC 9111) that decide whether a stored response is still fresh, and how a cheap conditional request revalidates it when it is not.
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Html sanitization
security · low: Allowlist-based HTML sanitizing of untrusted markup
DNS message format and client looku…
networking · low: Binary query/response format of DNS (RFC 1035) and how a stub client uses it: record types, name compression, UDP/TCP/EDNS sizes, TTL caching.
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JSON Schema validation
security · low: Compile a JSON Schema once, then check every untrusted document against it, within hard size and depth limits, and report failures as JSON Pointers.
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Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Image resampling filters
graphics · low: Resize an image by convolving with a kernel (box, triangle, cubic, Lanczos) whose width scales with the shrink factor, done as two separable 1-D passes with precomputed weights.
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Undo redo
graphics · low: Command or snapshot history with grouping and coalescing
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
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Image codecs
media · low: JPEG (DCT, Huffman), PNG, HEIF/AVIF decoding and encoding fundamentals
Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
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Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
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Name resolution
compilers · low: Bind every use of a name to its declaration with a scope stack, handling shadowing, hoisting and closure capture in one AST walk.
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Recursive-descent parsing
compilers · low: Hand-written top-down parser with one function per grammar rule; simple, fast, with full control over error messages and recovery.
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Source maps
compilers · low: Source map v3: VLQ-encoded mappings from generated to original positions
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
Record replay
distributed · low: Record every nondeterministic input (time, randomness, I/O, model and tool outputs, per-tick player input) and re-execute deterministically for debugging, replays and state rebuild
+ 36 more techniques
+ 79 more primitives
System
Techniques · 43
Primitives · 95
website-builder
CDN and edge
cloud · medium: CDNs cache content in hundreds of PoPs near users, cutting latency and egress bills; edge compute runs small code there. Bandwidth price spreads 10x between providers.
›
Minification name mangling
compilers · medium: Shrink JS by renaming locals, constant folding and dead branch removal, respecting scope
Template engines
compilers · medium: Compile templates with loops, partials and auto-escaping into render functions
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
Code splitting lazy loading
graphics · medium: Split bundles at dynamic imports, load chunks on demand, preload critical paths
Css cascade inheritance
graphics · medium: Resolve computed styles: origin and specificity ordering, inheritance, custom properties
Css grid layout
graphics · medium: CSS grid track sizing algorithm: fr units, minmax, auto placement
Flexbox layout
graphics · medium: CSS flexbox algorithm: flex basis, grow and shrink resolution, wrapping and alignment
Partial hydration islands
graphics · medium: Ship JS only for interactive islands of a server-rendered page; resumability variants
Retained mode ui tree
graphics · medium: Widget, element and render-object trees with rebuild, relayout and repaint boundaries
Reverse proxy
networking · medium: A server-side intermediary that terminates client connections and forwards each request to one of a pool of upstream servers, with routing, health checks, timeouts and safe retries.
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Acme protocol
security · medium: Automated TLS certificate issuance and renewal via ACME HTTP-01/DNS-01 challenges
Bot detection
security · medium: Combine declared identity, rate and timing, network, behaviour and integrity signals into one score per client, then map thresholds to allow, log, limit, challenge or block.
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Coverage-guided fuzzing
security · medium: Mutate inputs, run an instrumented target, and keep any input that reaches a new code edge; feedback turns blind guessing into incremental search.
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Tls termination
security · medium: Terminate TLS at a proxy: SNI cert selection, session resumption, OCSP, kTLS offload (listed in Moved to the wiki)
A/B testing (online controlled expe…
statistics · medium: Randomly split units into arms by a salted hash, log exposure, compare metrics with a confidence interval, and guard the result with sample-ratio, guardrail and peeking checks.
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Point-in-time recovery
storage · medium: Periodic base backups plus a continuously archived change log let you rebuild the state as of any instant, then branch from there.
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Schema evolution
storage · medium: Compatibility rules (backward/forward/full) for adding, removing and renaming fields
Cache invalidation
systems · medium: Make writes remove cached copies by key, group tag or prefix, broadcast the removal to every node, and guard refills with tokens so stale values never return.
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Delta debugging
compilers · medium: Ddmin minimization of failing inputs or change sets
Tree shaking
compilers · medium: Remove unused exports via module graph reachability and side-effect analysis
Fault injection
distributed · medium: Inject latency, errors, kills and partitions via proxies, netem or hooks
Block inline layout
graphics · medium: CSS box model: block formatting, inline formatting contexts, line boxes, floats and margins
Box constraint layout
graphics · medium: One-pass layout: constraints go down, sizes go up, parent sets position (Flutter-style)
Css selector matching
graphics · medium: Right-to-left selector matching with ancestor Bloom filters, rule hashing and style sharing
Gradient-boosted decision trees (GB…
machine-learning · medium: Add small regression trees one at a time, each fitted to the loss gradient; histogram splits over 256 bins make it the strongest tabular default.
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Behavioral biometrics
security · medium: Build a per-user profile of input timing and motion, score each new session by distance to it, and feed the result into a risk score instead of a verdict.
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Device fingerprinting
security · medium: Collect stable and volatile device signals, hash the stable core for exact lookup, fuzzy-match the rest with drift tolerance, and feed the result into a risk score.
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Key rotation
security · medium: Rotating keys without downtime: key ids, overlap windows, re-wrapping, JWKS publication, revocation
Reputation scoring
security · medium: Turn per-entity good/bad event counts into a trust score that forgets old evidence, borrows strength from parent groups for new keys, and maps to allow, challenge or block.
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TLS 1.3
security · medium: The standard encrypted, authenticated transport; one round trip, only forward-secret AEAD suites, and little left to misconfigure.
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Hypothesis testing
statistics · medium: Pick a test statistic, compare it to its distribution under "no effect", read off a p-value, and control error rates across one test or many.
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Sequential hypothesis testing
statistics · medium: Group-sequential and alpha-spending designs for interim analyses without inflating error
ARIES recovery
storage · medium: Three-pass crash recovery (analysis, redo, undo) for steal/no-force buffer pools; repeats history, then rolls back losers with compensation log records.
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Text shaping
graphics · medium: Map Unicode to positioned glyphs via OpenType GSUB/GPOS lookups, clusters and complex scripts
Unicode bidi algorithm
graphics · medium: UAX 9: resolve embedding levels and reorder mixed left-to-right and right-to-left text
Envelope encryption
security · medium: Encrypt each object with its own data key and wrap that key under a KMS-held key, so rotation re-wraps 60 bytes and deleting a key shreds data.
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Syscall interception
security · medium: Intercept syscalls via ptrace, seccomp user notify or a user-space kernel
Dynamic time warping
signal-processing · medium: DTW alignment of time series and trajectories of different speed
Sequential probability ratio test
statistics · medium: Add up the log-likelihood ratio per observation and stop when it crosses a fixed bound; the least data of any test with the same error rates (for two point hypotheses).
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Buffer pool
storage · medium: The database's own page cache (frames, page table, pin counts, dirty bits, replacement) so it, not the OS, controls eviction, write order and I/O.
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Font fallback itemization
graphics · medium: Split text into runs by script, direction and font coverage; pick fallback fonts per run
HTTP caching semantics
networking · low: The rules (RFC 9111) that decide whether a stored response is still fresh, and how a cheap conditional request revalidates it when it is not.
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Html sanitization
security · low: Allowlist-based HTML sanitizing of untrusted markup
DNS message format and client looku…
networking · low: Binary query/response format of DNS (RFC 1035) and how a stub client uses it: record types, name compression, UDP/TCP/EDNS sizes, TTL caching.
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JSON Schema validation
security · low: Compile a JSON Schema once, then check every untrusted document against it, within hard size and depth limits, and report failures as JSON Pointers.
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Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Image resampling filters
graphics · low: Resize an image by convolving with a kernel (box, triangle, cubic, Lanczos) whose width scales with the shrink factor, done as two separable 1-D passes with precomputed weights.
›
Undo redo
graphics · low: Command or snapshot history with grouping and coalescing
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
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Image codecs
media · low: JPEG (DCT, Huffman), PNG, HEIF/AVIF decoding and encoding fundamentals
Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
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Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
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Name resolution
compilers · low: Bind every use of a name to its declaration with a scope stack, handling shadowing, hoisting and closure capture in one AST walk.
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Recursive-descent parsing
compilers · low: Hand-written top-down parser with one function per grammar rule; simple, fast, with full control over error messages and recovery.
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Source maps
compilers · low: Source map v3: VLQ-encoded mappings from generated to original positions
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
Record replay
distributed · low: Record every nondeterministic input (time, randomness, I/O, model and tool outputs, per-tick player input) and re-execute deterministically for debugging, replays and state rebuild
PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
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Leases
distributed · low: A lock that expires on its own: bounded-time ownership that survives crashes and partitions, given bounded clock drift and fencing tokens on writes.
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Write-ahead log
storage · low: Append each change to a checksummed sequential log and fsync it before touching data pages; the basis of crash durability in nearly every database.
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Health checking
systems · low: Decide per backend whether to route to it using probes and real-traffic errors, with consecutive-count hysteresis, capped ejection and a panic fallback.
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Module resolution
compilers · low: Resolve import specifiers to files: Node and ESM resolution, package exports, CJS interop
String interning
data-structures · low: Store each distinct string once and refer to it by id
Dom event delegation
graphics · low: One listener at the root dispatching by target path; synthetic events and passive listeners
Damage tracking
graphics · low: Track dirty rectangles so each frame repaints and recomposites only what changed
Display list recording
graphics · low: Record draw commands into a replayable list for caching, culling and off-thread raster
Keyed list reconciliation
graphics · low: Minimal DOM moves for keyed children using a longest increasing subsequence
HTTP/1.1 message parsing
networking · low: Parse HTTP/1.1 requests and responses incrementally from a byte stream: RFC 9112 body-length rules, chunked decoding and the strictness that stops request smuggling.
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HTTP/2
networking · low: Binary multiplexed framing for HTTP over one TCP connection: streams, per-stream and per-connection credit windows, HPACK header compression and the limits that contain abuse.
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Trie url routing
networking · low: Radix-tree HTTP routers with params and wildcards; matching priority
Connection pooling
systems · low: Reuse and multiplex backend connections with bounded pools, checkout queues and health eviction
Exponential backoff with jitter
systems · low: Retry after delays that grow geometrically and are randomized, so failed clients spread out instead of hammering a recovering service in synchronized waves.
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ECDSA signatures
security · low: The elliptic-curve signature standardised in FIPS 186-5 (P-256) and used by secp256k1 ledgers; 64-byte signatures, but a repeated or biased nonce leaks the private key.
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JSON Web Token (JWT)
security · low: A signed, URL-safe token carrying claims; the verifier's job is the checklist (pinned algorithm, key by kid, exp, aud, iss), not the format.
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X509 certificates
security · low: Certificate chains, path validation, SANs, revocation and short-lived issuance
Proof of work challenge
security · low: Client puzzles (hashcash-style) that cost a client CPU to raise abuse cost, with adjustable difficulty
Tls fingerprinting
security · low: JA3/JA4 fingerprints of ClientHello parameters to identify clients
Sliding-window counters
systems · low: Count events in the last W seconds with a ring of sub-bucket counters; the two-bucket weighted estimate gives rate limits in 16 bytes per key.
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Code coverage instrumentation
compilers · low: Insert counters into compiled code to record which blocks, edges or lines ran; a spanning tree of the control-flow graph cuts the counters needed.
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Fast hash functions
data-structures · low: Non-cryptographic hashes built from 64×64→128-bit multiplies and xor-shifts; pick by key size, trust level and whether the hash is persisted.
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Sanitizers
security · low: ASan/UBSan/TSan shadow memory and instrumentation to catch memory bugs
Bootstrap confidence intervals
statistics · low: Resampling-based confidence intervals for arbitrary statistics
CUPED (variance reduction with pre-…
statistics · low: Subtract the part of each unit's outcome that a pre-experiment covariate predicts; the effect estimate stays unbiased and its variance shrinks by 1 - rho^2.
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Experiment layering (overlapping ex…
statistics · low: Partition the tunable parameters into layers, hash each unit with a per-layer salt so layers are independent, and give experiments inside a layer disjoint bucket ranges.
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Deterministic bucketing
systems · low: Hash a stable unit id with a per-purpose salt into a bucket; "in" means bucket below the percentage, so assignment is stateless, repeatable and only grows on ramp-up.
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Object storage
cloud · low: S3-compatible blob storage at cents per GB-month with 11 nines durability; pick by egress price, request price and latency, not by storage price alone.
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Copy on write snapshots
storage · low: Point-in-time snapshots by sharing pages/extents and copying only on write
Protobuf wire format
networking · low: Protocol Buffers wire format: tags, varints, length-delimited fields and schema evolution
Message sequence numbers
distributed · low: A per-stream counter on every message lets the receiver detect loss, duplicates and reordering, ack cheaply and resume after reconnect with "send from N".
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Publish subscribe event bus
systems · low: In-process or on-box topic bus decoupling producers and consumers with bounded queues
Failure bisection
search-sort · low: Binary search over commits, batches or inputs to isolate a failure
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
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Transparent interception
networking · low: Redirect traffic to a local proxy (iptables TPROXY/REDIRECT, eBPF) without app changes
Unicode line breaking
graphics · low: UAX 14 line break opportunities plus hyphenation hooks
Bloom filter
data-structures · low: Bit array answering "definitely not present" or "probably present" in about 10 bits per key for 1 % false positives; inserts are cheap, deletes impossible.
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Swiss table
data-structures · low: Open-addressing hash table that filters 8-16 slots at once with 1-byte hash tags and SIMD, giving fast lookups at 87.5 % load.
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Quantile sketches
data-structures · low: Mergeable quantile sketches: t-digest, DDSketch, HDR histograms
Loss functions
machine-learning · low: The scalar a model minimizes: cross-entropy for classes and tokens, MSE or Huber for values, each with a stable form and simple gradient.
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Regularization
machine-learning · low: Techniques that trade training fit for generalization: weight decay, dropout, early stopping, label smoothing and data mixing, with the exact update rules and defaults.
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Isolation forest
machine-learning · low: Score each record by how few random axis-aligned splits it takes to isolate it in a small forest of random trees; anomalies are few and different, so they isolate fast.
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Robust statistics
statistics · low: Location and scale estimates (median, MAD, trimmed mean, Huber M-estimator) that stay correct when a minority of the data is garbage.
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User agent parsing
search-sort · low: Parse user-agent strings and client hints into browser, OS and device
Fuzzy hashing
security · low: Similarity-preserving file hashes (ssdeep CTPH, TLSH) to find variants of known files
Secrets management
security · low: Keep keys and passwords out of code and logs, give workloads short-lived identity instead of static keys, and make rotation routine.
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Cron scheduling
systems · low: Cron expression parsing and next-fire-time computation, with catch-up and time-zone rules
Time decay scoring
search-sort · low: Scoring items by recency with exponential decay or half-life, combined with relevance
Bayesian rate estimation
statistics · low: Estimate a conversion or event rate from few observations with a Beta-Binomial or Gamma-Poisson update: two counters, an honest interval, and P(B beats A) directly.
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AEAD (AES-GCM, ChaCha20-Poly1305)
security · low: Authenticated encryption that encrypts and detects tampering in one call; the only kind of symmetric encryption you should use.
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Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
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ECDH key exchange (X25519, P-256)
security · low: Each side multiplies the other's public curve point by its own scalar and both get the same point; always validate the peer key and run the result through a KDF.
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HKDF key derivation (extract-and-ex…
security · low: HMAC-based two-step key derivation: extract a uniform pseudorandom key from any secret, then expand it into as many context-bound keys as you need.
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Wilson score interval
statistics · low: Wilson lower bound for ranking by up/down votes and proportions with few samples
Opentype font parsing
graphics · low: Sfnt tables (cmap, glyf, CFF, hmtx, GSUB, GPOS), variable font axes, safe parsing
Unicode text tokenization for search
search-sort · low: Turn multilingual text into index terms: segment words (UAX 29 style, CJK bigrams), normalize, case-fold and accent-fold, identically at index and query time.
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Text position encoding
compilers · low: Store byte offsets, convert to (line, column) on demand with a line-start table and binary search, and count columns in the unit the peer negotiated.
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Aes key wrap
security · low: AES Key Wrap (RFC 3394/5649) and AES-GCM-SIV for deterministic, authenticated wrapping of key material
Csprng
security · low: OS-backed cryptographically secure random numbers (getrandom), and when a fast PRNG is not enough
Ebpf
hardware-os · low: Verified in-kernel programs on hooks (kprobes, XDP, tc) with maps
Ptrace process control
hardware-os · low: Ptrace: attach, read and write registers and memory, single-step, intercept signals
Seccomp bpf
security · low: Syscall filtering with seccomp BPF programs
SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
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Loglikelihood scoring
machine-learning · low: Scoring choices by summed token log-probabilities, normalization by length, perplexity computation
fsync, O_DSYNC and O_DIRECT
hardware-os · low: What fsync, fdatasync, O_DSYNC, O_DIRECT and F_FULLFSYNC really guarantee on Linux and macOS, and the exact call sequences for crash-safe files.
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LRU and CLOCK
systems · low: LRU evicts the least recently used entry via hash map plus linked list; CLOCK approximates it with a reference bit, so hits take no lock.
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S3-FIFO
systems · low: Three FIFO queues (small, main, ghost) that evict one-hit wonders quickly and keep reused objects; low miss ratios with no list moves on hits.
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Control-flow graph
compilers · low: Split a linear instruction list into basic blocks and connect them by jumps; the graph every optimizer, SSA builder and dataflow pass walks.
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d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
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Fencing tokens
distributed · low: A number that grows with every lock grant and is checked by the protected resource, so a paused ex-holder's late write is rejected.
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Convolution image filters
graphics · low: Separable 2D convolution kernels for blur, sharpen (unsharp mask) and edges with border handling
Minimum spanning tree
graphs · low: Cheapest set of edges connecting all vertices; Kruskal sorts edges and joins components with union-find, Prim grows one tree, Boruvka merges in parallel rounds.
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Union-find
graphs · low: Disjoint-set forest with union by size and path compression; merges sets and answers same-set queries in effectively constant time.
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CRC32C checksums
hardware-os · low: The Castagnoli CRC-32 with dedicated instructions on x86 (SSE4.2) and ARMv8. It is the standard fast integrity check for storage blocks, logs and network frames.
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Text normalization
machine-learning · low: Rewrite messy text into one canonical form for matchers and models, or into spoken words for speech output (and back), keeping a map to the original offsets.
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Sparse matrices (CSR)
numerics · low: Compressed sparse row stores only nonzeros as row pointers, column indices and values; SpMV streams them once, so it is memory-bandwidth bound.
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Constant time code
security · low: Writing secret-dependent code without branches or memory lookups on secrets; constant-time compare and select
OAuth 2 and OpenID Connect
security · low: Delegated authorization (OAuth 2) and login on top of it (OIDC); use authorization code + PKCE for every user-facing client.
›
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