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Communication and media
push-notifications
push notification fanout
APNs, FCM
System
Techniques · 15
Primitives · 59
push-notifications
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Durable job queue
distributed · medium: Persisted tasks that workers lease for a visibility timeout, ack on success and retry with backoff; at-least-once execution that survives worker and queue crashes.
›
Fan-out on write
distributed · medium: Append each new item id to every follower's precomputed, capped list so a read is one fetch; pull the few huge authors at read time instead.
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Presence tracking
distributed · medium: Heartbeats refresh per-connection TTLs; a user is online while any connection lives, with a grace period that hides reconnect flaps.
›
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
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Pub/sub fan-out
distributed · medium: Deliver one published message to every subscriber of a topic by sharing one encoded payload and giving each connection a bounded queue with an explicit slow-consumer policy.
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Coverage-guided fuzzing
security · medium: Mutate inputs, run an instrumented target, and keep any input that reaches a new code edge; feedback turns blind guessing into incremental search.
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Exponential backoff with jitter
systems · low: Retry after delays that grow geometrically and are randomized, so failed clients spread out instead of hammering a recovering service in synchronized waves.
›
Hierarchical timing wheel
systems · low: Timers bucketed by expiry into wheels of slots, coarser wheels for far deadlines: O(1) insert and cancel for millions of timeouts.
›
Backpressure
systems · low: Bound every queue and make a full queue push back on the producer by blocking, dropping, rejecting or withholding credit.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Consistent hashing
distributed · low: Hash nodes and keys onto a ring; each key belongs to the next node clockwise, so membership changes move only about 1/n of keys.
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Distributed ID generation
distributed · low: Mint unique, roughly time-sorted IDs on many nodes with no per-ID coordination: Snowflake (time, worker, sequence) or UUIDv7 (time, random).
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Event deduplication window
distributed · low: Keep the ids of recently accepted events for a time window and drop repeats; memory stays bounded by rotating time buckets instead of per-entry timers.
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Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
›
epoll event loop
networking · low: One thread waits on thousands of non-blocking sockets with epoll_wait and handles only ready ones; the core of nginx, Redis and tokio.
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HTTP/2
networking · low: Binary multiplexed framing for HTTP over one TCP connection: streams, per-stream and per-connection credit windows, HPACK header compression and the limits that contain abuse.
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io_uring
networking · low: Linux async I/O through two shared-memory rings (submissions in, completions out), batching or eliminating syscalls for sockets and files alike.
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JSON Web Token (JWT)
security · low: A signed, URL-safe token carrying claims; the verifier's job is the checklist (pinned algorithm, key by kid, exp, aud, iss), not the format.
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Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
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Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
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Token bucket
systems · low: A bucket of up to b tokens refilled at rate r; requests spend tokens, enforcing an average rate while allowing bursts of b.
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Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
+ 8 more techniques
+ 43 more primitives
System
Techniques · 15
Primitives · 59
push-notifications
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Durable job queue
distributed · medium: Persisted tasks that workers lease for a visibility timeout, ack on success and retry with backoff; at-least-once execution that survives worker and queue crashes.
›
Fan-out on write
distributed · medium: Append each new item id to every follower's precomputed, capped list so a read is one fetch; pull the few huge authors at read time instead.
›
Presence tracking
distributed · medium: Heartbeats refresh per-connection TTLs; a user is online while any connection lives, with a grace period that hides reconnect flaps.
›
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
Pub/sub fan-out
distributed · medium: Deliver one published message to every subscriber of a topic by sharing one encoded payload and giving each connection a bounded queue with an explicit slow-consumer policy.
›
Coverage-guided fuzzing
security · medium: Mutate inputs, run an instrumented target, and keep any input that reaches a new code edge; feedback turns blind guessing into incremental search.
›
TLS 1.3
security · medium: The standard encrypted, authenticated transport; one round trip, only forward-secret AEAD suites, and little left to misconfigure.
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Point-in-time recovery
storage · medium: Periodic base backups plus a continuously archived change log let you rebuild the state as of any instant, then branch from there.
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Delta debugging
compilers · medium: Ddmin minimization of failing inputs or change sets
Fault injection
distributed · medium: Inject latency, errors, kills and partitions via proxies, netem or hooks
ARIES recovery
storage · medium: Three-pass crash recovery (analysis, redo, undo) for steal/no-force buffer pools; repeats history, then rolls back losers with compensation log records.
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LSM-tree
storage · medium: Buffer writes in memory, flush them as immutable sorted files and merge in the background; turns random writes into sequential I/O.
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Syscall interception
security · medium: Intercept syscalls via ptrace, seccomp user notify or a user-space kernel
Buffer pool
storage · medium: The database's own page cache (frames, page table, pin counts, dirty bits, replacement) so it, not the OS, controls eviction, write order and I/O.
›
Exponential backoff with jitter
systems · low: Retry after delays that grow geometrically and are randomized, so failed clients spread out instead of hammering a recovering service in synchronized waves.
›
Hierarchical timing wheel
systems · low: Timers bucketed by expiry into wheels of slots, coarser wheels for far deadlines: O(1) insert and cancel for millions of timeouts.
›
Backpressure
systems · low: Bound every queue and make a full queue push back on the producer by blocking, dropping, rejecting or withholding credit.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Consistent hashing
distributed · low: Hash nodes and keys onto a ring; each key belongs to the next node clockwise, so membership changes move only about 1/n of keys.
›
Distributed ID generation
distributed · low: Mint unique, roughly time-sorted IDs on many nodes with no per-ID coordination: Snowflake (time, worker, sequence) or UUIDv7 (time, random).
›
Event deduplication window
distributed · low: Keep the ids of recently accepted events for a time window and drop repeats; memory stays bounded by rotating time buckets instead of per-entry timers.
›
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
›
epoll event loop
networking · low: One thread waits on thousands of non-blocking sockets with epoll_wait and handles only ready ones; the core of nginx, Redis and tokio.
›
HTTP/2
networking · low: Binary multiplexed framing for HTTP over one TCP connection: streams, per-stream and per-connection credit windows, HPACK header compression and the limits that contain abuse.
›
io_uring
networking · low: Linux async I/O through two shared-memory rings (submissions in, completions out), batching or eliminating syscalls for sockets and files alike.
›
JSON Web Token (JWT)
security · low: A signed, URL-safe token carrying claims; the verifier's job is the checklist (pinned algorithm, key by kid, exp, aud, iss), not the format.
›
Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
›
Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
›
Token bucket
systems · low: A bucket of up to b tokens refilled at rate r; requests spend tokens, enforcing an average rate while allowing bursts of b.
›
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
Record replay
distributed · low: Record every nondeterministic input (time, randomness, I/O, model and tool outputs, per-tick player input) and re-execute deterministically for debugging, replays and state rebuild
PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
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Dead-letter queue
distributed · low: A side queue for messages that keep failing: after N delivery attempts or a permanent error, park them with the reason so the main queue keeps moving.
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Leases
distributed · low: A lock that expires on its own: bounded-time ownership that survives crashes and partitions, given bounded clock drift and fencing tokens on writes.
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Idempotency keys
finance · low: Client-chosen unique key per logical operation, stored with a request fingerprint and the final response, so retries replay the first result instead of acting twice.
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Write-ahead log
storage · low: Append each change to a checksummed sequential log and fsync it before touching data pages; the basis of crash durability in nearly every database.
›
Range partitioning
distributed · low: Cut the sorted key space into contiguous half-open ranges kept in a boundary map; split hot or big ranges, merge small ones, move ranges between nodes.
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Health checking
systems · low: Decide per backend whether to route to it using probes and real-traffic errors, with consecutive-count hysteresis, capped ejection and a panic fallback.
›
SPSC ring buffer
data-structures · low: Bounded wait-free queue for exactly one producer and one consumer thread, built from an array and two indices with acquire/release ordering.
›
Topic matching trie
data-structures · low: Trie over topic levels with + and # wildcards for subscription matching
Code coverage instrumentation
compilers · low: Insert counters into compiled code to record which blocks, edges or lines ran; a spanning tree of the control-flow graph cuts the counters needed.
›
Fast hash functions
data-structures · low: Non-cryptographic hashes built from 64×64→128-bit multiplies and xor-shifts; pick by key size, trust level and whether the hash is persisted.
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Sanitizers
security · low: ASan/UBSan/TSan shadow memory and instrumentation to catch memory bugs
AEAD (AES-GCM, ChaCha20-Poly1305)
security · low: Authenticated encryption that encrypts and detects tampering in one call; the only kind of symmetric encryption you should use.
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Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
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ECDH key exchange (X25519, P-256)
security · low: Each side multiplies the other's public curve point by its own scalar and both get the same point; always validate the peer key and run the result through a KDF.
›
HKDF key derivation (extract-and-ex…
security · low: HMAC-based two-step key derivation: extract a uniform pseudorandom key from any secret, then expand it into as many context-bound keys as you need.
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X509 certificates
security · low: Certificate chains, path validation, SANs, revocation and short-lived issuance
Object storage
cloud · low: S3-compatible blob storage at cents per GB-month with 11 nines durability; pick by egress price, request price and latency, not by storage price alone.
›
Copy on write snapshots
storage · low: Point-in-time snapshots by sharing pages/extents and copying only on write
Failure bisection
search-sort · low: Binary search over commits, batches or inputs to isolate a failure
Transparent interception
networking · low: Redirect traffic to a local proxy (iptables TPROXY/REDIRECT, eBPF) without app changes
Ebpf
hardware-os · low: Verified in-kernel programs on hooks (kprobes, XDP, tc) with maps
Ptrace process control
hardware-os · low: Ptrace: attach, read and write registers and memory, single-step, intercept signals
Seccomp bpf
security · low: Syscall filtering with seccomp BPF programs
fsync, O_DSYNC and O_DIRECT
hardware-os · low: What fsync, fdatasync, O_DSYNC, O_DIRECT and F_FULLFSYNC really guarantee on Linux and macOS, and the exact call sequences for crash-safe files.
›
LRU and CLOCK
systems · low: LRU evicts the least recently used entry via hash map plus linked list; CLOCK approximates it with a reference bit, so hits take no lock.
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S3-FIFO
systems · low: Three FIFO queues (small, main, ghost) that evict one-hit wonders quickly and keep reused objects; low miss ratios with no list moves on hits.
›
Control-flow graph
compilers · low: Split a linear instruction list into basic blocks and connect them by jumps; the graph every optimizer, SSA builder and dataflow pass walks.
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False sharing
concurrency · low: Independent variables written by different cores on one cache line force the line to bounce between cores; pad or regroup hot data to fix it.
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Memory ordering
concurrency · low: What Relaxed, Acquire, Release and SeqCst atomics actually guarantee, what they cost on x86 and ARM, and which one each pattern needs.
›
d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
›
Fencing tokens
distributed · low: A number that grows with every lock grant and is checked by the protected resource, so a paused ex-holder's late write is rejected.
›
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
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Minimum spanning tree
graphs · low: Cheapest set of edges connecting all vertices; Kruskal sorts edges and joins components with union-find, Prim grows one tree, Boruvka merges in parallel rounds.
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Union-find
graphs · low: Disjoint-set forest with union by size and path compression; merges sets and answers same-set queries in effectively constant time.
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CPU caches and the memory hierarchy
hardware-os · low: Sizes, line widths and latencies of L1/L2/L3/DRAM on modern x86 and Apple M-series, and the data-layout rules that follow from them.
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CRC32C checksums
hardware-os · low: The Castagnoli CRC-32 with dedicated instructions on x86 (SSE4.2) and ARMv8. It is the standard fast integrity check for storage blocks, logs and network frames.
›
SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
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Sparse matrices (CSR)
numerics · low: Compressed sparse row stores only nonzeros as row pointers, column indices and values; SpMV streams them once, so it is memory-bandwidth bound.
›
Constant time code
security · low: Writing secret-dependent code without branches or memory lookups on secrets; constant-time compare and select
Csprng
security · low: OS-backed cryptographically secure random numbers (getrandom), and when a fast PRNG is not enough
Slab allocator
systems · low: Pre-carve pages into equal-size slots per size class with an in-place free list: O(1) alloc and free, no external fragmentation, cache-warm reuse.
›
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