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Finance, HR and back office
procurement
procurement and purchase approvals
Coupa
System
Techniques · 14
Primitives · 72
procurement
Quota reservation
finance · medium: Reserve, consume and release usage units against balances with validity timers (credit control)
Optical character recognition (text…
machine-learning · medium: Find text lines in an image, read each crop with a CTC or attention model, then correct with a lexicon and score confidence for review routing.
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Text classification
machine-learning · medium: Assign one or more labels to a text; climb a ladder from regexes to linear models on n-grams, embeddings, fine-tuned encoders and LLM prompts, only as far as the data and budget demand.
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Inventory policies safety stock
optimization · medium: (s,S), base-stock, EOQ and newsvendor policies with safety stock from demand uncertainty
Record linkage
search-sort · medium: Probabilistic record matching (Fellegi-Sunter) with blocking for patient or entity indexes
Saml
security · medium: SAML 2.0 assertions, XML signatures, SP/IdP flows and canonicalization pitfalls
Scim provisioning
security · medium: SCIM 2.0 user/group provisioning API: create, patch, deprovision, filters
XML Streaming Parser
storage · low: Tokenize XML into start, text and end events in constant memory, so a few fields can be extracted from huge, broken or hostile documents.
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BM25 ranking
search-sort · low: The standard lexical relevance score: IDF-weighted term frequency with saturation (k1) and length normalization (b); default in Lucene, Elasticsearch and SQLite FTS5.
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Currency cross rate triangulation
finance · low: Deriving cross rates through a base currency with correct precision, inversion and spreads
Double-entry ledger
finance · low: Append-only journal of transactions whose postings sum to zero per currency; balances are derived, so money can only move, never appear or vanish.
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Money representation
finance · low: Store money as integer minor units with an explicit currency exponent, compute in wider integers, and round once with a named rounding mode.
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Reconciliation
finance · low: Match internal ledger records against bank and processor statements by reference, then amount and date window; every unmatched or mismatched item becomes an exception.
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Sealed bid auction
finance · low: First-price and second-price sealed-bid auctions with reserves and floors
Dual control approval
security · low: Four-eyes / maker-checker approval with quorum policies for sensitive operations
Gapless sequence numbers
storage · low: Gap-free, monotonic numbering (invoices, journal entries) under concurrency and rollbacks
Hierarchical state machine
systems · low: Nest states so a substate inherits its parent's reactions and only overrides what differs, with ordered entry and exit actions along the path.
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Conditional writes
distributed · low: Put-if-absent / if-match compare-and-swap on objects or keys as a commit primitive
Leases
distributed · low: A lock that expires on its own: bounded-time ownership that survives crashes and partitions, given bounded clock drift and fencing tokens on writes.
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Idempotency keys
finance · low: Client-chosen unique key per logical operation, stored with a request fingerprint and the final response, so retries replay the first result instead of acting twice.
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Connectionist temporal classificati…
machine-learning · low: Alignment-free sequence loss that sums the probability of every frame-to-label alignment with a blank symbol, using a dynamic program.
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Document image preprocessing
machine-learning · low: Turn a scan or phone photo into an upright, evenly lit, binarised or normalised grey page so layout analysis and OCR read it reliably.
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Convolutional networks
ml-training · low: Layers that slide a small shared kernel over a grid, giving translation equivariance and few parameters; still the most compute-efficient choice for many vision tasks.
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+ 7 more techniques
+ 56 more primitives
System
Techniques · 14
Primitives · 72
procurement
Quota reservation
finance · medium: Reserve, consume and release usage units against balances with validity timers (credit control)
Optical character recognition (text…
machine-learning · medium: Find text lines in an image, read each crop with a CTC or attention model, then correct with a lexicon and score confidence for review routing.
›
Text classification
machine-learning · medium: Assign one or more labels to a text; climb a ladder from regexes to linear models on n-grams, embeddings, fine-tuned encoders and LLM prompts, only as far as the data and budget demand.
›
Inventory policies safety stock
optimization · medium: (s,S), base-stock, EOQ and newsvendor policies with safety stock from demand uncertainty
Record linkage
search-sort · medium: Probabilistic record matching (Fellegi-Sunter) with blocking for patient or entity indexes
Saml
security · medium: SAML 2.0 assertions, XML signatures, SP/IdP flows and canonicalization pitfalls
Scim provisioning
security · medium: SCIM 2.0 user/group provisioning API: create, patch, deprovision, filters
Tamper-evident audit log
security · medium: An append-only log whose Merkle root, signed per batch, lets anyone verify an entry is present and history was never rewritten, with log-size proofs.
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Entity resolution
storage · medium: Decide which records describe the same real-world thing: block to cut the pair space, score pairs with a probabilistic model, cluster the matches transitively.
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Inverted index
storage · medium: Map each term to a sorted, compressed list of the documents containing it; the core of full-text search and other fast set queries.
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Event condition action rules
systems · medium: Event-condition-action rule engines for automations, edit checks and alerts
Near-duplicate detection with MinHa…
machine-learning · medium: Estimate set Jaccard similarity from k min-hashes and find similar pairs with banded LSH buckets; the standard dedup for web crawls, training corpora and sequence collections.
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Time-series forecasting (baselines,…
statistics · medium: The end-to-end recipe: fix horizon and uncertainty, beat naive baselines, choose a model family, and validate with rolling-origin backtests and scale-free metrics.
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Arima
statistics · medium: ARIMA/SARIMA forecasting: differencing, AR and MA terms, order selection, maximum-likelihood fit
XML Streaming Parser
storage · low: Tokenize XML into start, text and end events in constant memory, so a few fields can be extracted from huge, broken or hostile documents.
›
BM25 ranking
search-sort · low: The standard lexical relevance score: IDF-weighted term frequency with saturation (k1) and length normalization (b); default in Lucene, Elasticsearch and SQLite FTS5.
›
Currency cross rate triangulation
finance · low: Deriving cross rates through a base currency with correct precision, inversion and spreads
Double-entry ledger
finance · low: Append-only journal of transactions whose postings sum to zero per currency; balances are derived, so money can only move, never appear or vanish.
›
Money representation
finance · low: Store money as integer minor units with an explicit currency exponent, compute in wider integers, and round once with a named rounding mode.
›
Reconciliation
finance · low: Match internal ledger records against bank and processor statements by reference, then amount and date window; every unmatched or mismatched item becomes an exception.
›
Sealed bid auction
finance · low: First-price and second-price sealed-bid auctions with reserves and floors
Dual control approval
security · low: Four-eyes / maker-checker approval with quorum policies for sensitive operations
Gapless sequence numbers
storage · low: Gap-free, monotonic numbering (invoices, journal entries) under concurrency and rollbacks
Hierarchical state machine
systems · low: Nest states so a substate inherits its parent's reactions and only overrides what differs, with ordered entry and exit actions along the path.
›
Conditional writes
distributed · low: Put-if-absent / if-match compare-and-swap on objects or keys as a commit primitive
Leases
distributed · low: A lock that expires on its own: bounded-time ownership that survives crashes and partitions, given bounded clock drift and fencing tokens on writes.
›
Idempotency keys
finance · low: Client-chosen unique key per logical operation, stored with a request fingerprint and the final response, so retries replay the first result instead of acting twice.
›
Connectionist temporal classificati…
machine-learning · low: Alignment-free sequence loss that sums the probability of every frame-to-label alignment with a blank symbol, using a dynamic program.
›
Document image preprocessing
machine-learning · low: Turn a scan or phone photo into an upright, evenly lit, binarised or normalised grey page so layout analysis and OCR read it reliably.
›
Convolutional networks
ml-training · low: Layers that slide a small shared kernel over a grid, giving translation equivariance and few parameters; still the most compute-efficient choice for many vision tasks.
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Transformer block
ml-training · low: The decoder-only pre-norm block (attention plus MLP on a residual stream) behind every modern LLM, with exact shapes, parameter, FLOP and KV-cache counts.
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Byte-pair encoding (BPE) tokenizati…
machine-learning · low: Learn a subword vocabulary by repeatedly merging the most frequent adjacent pair; byte-level BPE encodes any input losslessly with 32k-200k tokens.
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Calibration
machine-learning · low: Make predicted probabilities match observed frequencies: measure with ECE, fix post hoc with temperature, Platt or isotonic scaling on held-out data.
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Linear and logistic regression
machine-learning · low: Fit a weighted sum of features to a number (least squares) or a probability (logistic); the baseline every model must beat.
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Monte Carlo integration
numerics · low: Estimate an expectation by averaging random samples; error falls as σ/√N in any dimension, and variance reduction (antithetic, control variates, importance sampling) shrinks σ.
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Croston method
statistics · low: Forecasting intermittent demand by separately smoothing demand sizes and intervals (Croston, SBA, TSB)
Union-find
graphs · low: Disjoint-set forest with union by size and path compression; merges sets and answers same-set queries in effectively constant time.
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Fuzzy string matching
search-sort · low: Edit distance, Jaro-Winkler and trigram indexes for approximate name and address matching
Replay protection window
security · low: A highest-seen counter plus a bitmap of the last W numbers rejects duplicates and stale messages in O(1) with a few hundred bytes of state.
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Rsa cryptosystem
security · low: RSA key generation, OAEP encryption and PSS/PKCS#1 v1.5 signatures, key sizes and padding pitfalls
X509 certificates
security · low: Certificate chains, path validation, SANs, revocation and short-lived issuance
Cursor pagination
networking · low: Keyset/opaque-cursor pagination for stable incremental reads from APIs and tables
JSON Schema validation
security · low: Compile a JSON Schema once, then check every untrusted document against it, within hard size and depth limits, and report failures as JSON Pointers.
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Merkle tree
data-structures · low: Hash tree for verifying and diffing large datasets with logarithmic proofs
Segmented log
distributed · low: Split an append-only log into files named by their first offset, write only the newest, and find any record by binary search plus a sparse index.
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Digital signatures (Ed25519)
security · low: Small, fast, deterministic public-key signatures that prove who produced a message; the default for tokens, releases and protocols.
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Trusted timestamping
security · low: RFC 3161 time-stamp tokens: a TSA signs a hash with time, proving data existed then
Embeddings
machine-learning · low: A learned table mapping discrete ids to dense vectors: gather forward, sparse scatter-add backward, row-wise optimizers to keep huge tables cheap.
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Bit packing and PFOR
compression · low: Store blocks of integers with exactly b bits each and patch rare outliers separately (PFOR); the fastest integer codec family, billions of values per second.
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Delta encoding
compression · low: Store differences between consecutive values instead of the values, turning sorted IDs, timestamps and counters into small numbers that pack into few bits.
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Varint (LEB128)
compression · low: Variable-length integers in 7-bit groups with a continuation bit; small numbers take 1 byte, the wire format of Protobuf, WebAssembly and DWARF.
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Sorted-list intersection
search-sort · low: Intersect sorted id lists by merging, galloping from the short list into the long one, and skipping whole compressed blocks, shortest list first.
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Recursive-descent parsing
compilers · low: Hand-written top-down parser with one function per grammar rule; simple, fast, with full control over error messages and recovery.
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Hierarchical timing wheel
systems · low: Timers bucketed by expiry into wheels of slots, coarser wheels for far deadlines: O(1) insert and cancel for millions of timeouts.
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Publish subscribe event bus
systems · low: In-process or on-box topic bus decoupling producers and consumers with bounded queues
Fast hash functions
data-structures · low: Non-cryptographic hashes built from 64×64→128-bit multiplies and xor-shifts; pick by key size, trust level and whether the hash is persisted.
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Rolling hash
data-structures · low: Rabin-Karp polynomial rolling hashes and winnowing for substring fingerprints and document matching
Swiss table
data-structures · low: Open-addressing hash table that filters 8-16 slots at once with 1-byte hash tags and SIMD, giving fast lookups at 87.5 % load.
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Exponential smoothing (ETS, Holt-Wi…
statistics · low: Forecast by keeping a few running states (level, trend, seasonal) updated by a fraction of each forecast error; O(1) memory per series and a strong baseline.
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STL decomposition (seasonal-trend w…
statistics · low: Split a series into trend, seasonal and remainder with iterated loess smoothing; the seasonal shape may drift and robust weights keep outliers out of it.
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Time-series cross-validation (rolli…
statistics · low: Estimate forecast error by repeatedly training on the past and testing on the next h steps, moving the origin forward; never trains on the future.
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Finite differences
numerics · low: Replace derivatives with weighted differences of grid values; simple stencils plus a stability condition (CFL) turn PDEs like heat, advection and waves into array loops.
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L-BFGS
numerics · low: Quasi-Newton minimizer that approximates the inverse Hessian from the last m gradient differences via the two-loop recursion; O(m·n) memory and work per step.
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Kalman filter
robotics · low: Optimal recursive estimator for a linear system with Gaussian noise: fuses a motion model with noisy measurements into a state estimate plus its covariance.
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d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
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Fencing tokens
distributed · low: A number that grows with every lock grant and is checked by the protected resource, so a paused ex-holder's late write is rejected.
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Largest remainder rounding
finance · low: Splitting an amount into parts that sum exactly (largest remainder / Hamilton) for allocations, splits and prorations
SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
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Evaluation metrics
machine-learning · low: Precision, recall, ROC AUC, average precision, log loss, NDCG and pass@k computed correctly, plus paired confidence intervals for comparing models.
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Loss functions
machine-learning · low: The scalar a model minimizes: cross-entropy for classes and tokens, MSE or Huber for values, each with a stable form and simple gradient.
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Text normalization
machine-learning · low: Rewrite messy text into one canonical form for matchers and models, or into spoken words for speech output (and back), keeping a map to the original offsets.
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AdamW
ml-training · low: Adam's per-parameter adaptive steps with weight decay applied directly to the weights; the default optimizer for transformers and LLM pretraining.
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Rejection sampling
ml-training · low: Best-of-n and filtered sampling: generate many candidates, keep those passing a verifier or reward threshold
Reverse-mode automatic differentiat…
ml-training · low: Record the forward computation on a tape, then sweep it backwards once to get the gradient of a scalar loss for all inputs.
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Explicit Euler
numerics · low: Step an ODE forward by its current slope, y += h·f(t, y); first-order, one evaluation per step, the baseline every other integrator is measured against.
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LU and Cholesky factorization
numerics · low: Factor A = PLU (any square matrix, partial pivoting) or A = LLᵀ (SPD) once in O(n³), then solve each right-hand side in O(n²).
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PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
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Thomas tridiagonal solver
numerics · low: O(n) tridiagonal linear solve used in implicit finite-difference and spline schemes
Top-k selection
search-sort · low: Keep the k best of n items without sorting all n - bounded min-heap for streams, quickselect for arrays, threshold pruning to skip most items.
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Unicode text tokenization for search
search-sort · low: Turn multilingual text into index terms: segment words (UAX 29 style, CJK bigrams), normalize, case-fold and accent-fold, identically at index and query time.
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Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
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Bootstrap confidence intervals
statistics · low: Resampling-based confidence intervals for arbitrary statistics
Robust statistics
statistics · low: Location and scale estimates (median, MAD, trimmed mean, Huber M-estimator) that stay correct when a minority of the data is garbage.
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Hash join
storage · low: Build a hash table on the smaller input's join key and probe it with every row of the larger one; the linear-time workhorse for equi-joins.
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Exponential backoff with jitter
systems · low: Retry after delays that grow geometrically and are randomized, so failed clients spread out instead of hammering a recovering service in synchronized waves.
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Slab allocator
systems · low: Pre-carve pages into equal-size slots per size class with an in-place free list: O(1) alloc and free, no external fragmentation, cache-warm reuse.
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