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Communication and media
live-streaming
low-latency live streaming
Twitch, LL-HLS
System
Techniques · 17
Primitives · 68
live-streaming
CDN and edge
cloud · medium: CDNs cache content in hundreds of PoPs near users, cutting latency and egress bills; edge compute runs small code there. Bandwidth price spreads 10x between providers.
›
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
Adaptive bitrate streaming
media · medium: The client fetches short HTTP segments and picks each segment's rendition from throughput estimates, buffer level, or both, trading stalls against quality and switches.
›
Jitter buffer
media · medium: A receiver-side buffer holds packets just long enough, a delay tracked from recent arrivals, to reorder them and hand out media at a steady rate.
›
Low latency hls dash
media · medium: Partial segments, chunked CMAF, blocking playlist reload for 2-5 s latency
Video rate control
media · medium: CBR/VBR/CRF rate control with VBV buffer model and lookahead
HTTP caching semantics
networking · low: The rules (RFC 9111) that decide whether a stored response is still fresh, and how a cheap conditional request revalidates it when it is not.
›
Adaptive streaming manifests
media · low: HLS playlists and DASH MPDs: renditions, segment timelines, codecs strings
GOP structure
media · low: How an encoder orders I, P and B frames into groups of pictures: the knob behind seekability, compression, latency and stream switching.
›
Media containers
media · low: MP4/ISO BMFF, fragmented MP4/CMAF, Matroska and MPEG-TS mux/demux
A/V sync and media clocks
media · low: How audio and video stay lip-synced: per-stream timebases, PTS/DTS, PCR and RTCP clock mapping, and a master clock that slave streams chase by dropping, repeating or resampling.
›
RTP and RTCP
media · low: RTP stamps each media packet with sequence number, media-clock timestamp and source ID; RTCP reports loss, jitter, round trip and clock mapping within a bandwidth cap.
›
BBR congestion control
networking · low: Model-based congestion control that paces at the measured bottleneck bandwidth and caps inflight near one BDP, instead of reacting to loss.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Consistent hashing
distributed · low: Hash nodes and keys onto a ring; each key belongs to the next node clockwise, so membership changes move only about 1/n of keys.
›
Reliable UDP
game-networking · low: Transport over UDP: each packet carries a sequence number, an ack and a 32-bit ack history; only chosen messages are made reliable.
›
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
›
Hardware video acceleration
media · low: GPU/ASIC encode and decode APIs (NVENC, VideoToolbox, VA-API) with zero-copy surfaces
Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
›
Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
›
Request coalescing
systems · low: Collapse concurrent identical requests into one backend fetch (singleflight)
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
+ 10 more techniques
+ 52 more primitives
System
Techniques · 17
Primitives · 68
live-streaming
CDN and edge
cloud · medium: CDNs cache content in hundreds of PoPs near users, cutting latency and egress bills; edge compute runs small code there. Bandwidth price spreads 10x between providers.
›
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
Adaptive bitrate streaming
media · medium: The client fetches short HTTP segments and picks each segment's rendition from throughput estimates, buffer level, or both, trading stalls against quality and switches.
›
Jitter buffer
media · medium: A receiver-side buffer holds packets just long enough, a delay tracked from recent arrivals, to reorder them and hand out media at a steady rate.
›
Low latency hls dash
media · medium: Partial segments, chunked CMAF, blocking playlist reload for 2-5 s latency
Video rate control
media · medium: CBR/VBR/CRF rate control with VBV buffer model and lookahead
QUIC
networking · medium: Encrypted, multiplexed transport over UDP with 1-RTT setup, independent streams and connection migration; the transport of HTTP/3.
›
Coverage-guided fuzzing
security · medium: Mutate inputs, run an instrumented target, and keep any input that reaches a new code edge; feedback turns blind guessing into incremental search.
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Point-in-time recovery
storage · medium: Periodic base backups plus a continuously archived change log let you rebuild the state as of any instant, then branch from there.
›
Delta debugging
compilers · medium: Ddmin minimization of failing inputs or change sets
Fault injection
distributed · medium: Inject latency, errors, kills and partitions via proxies, netem or hooks
Packet loss concealment
media · medium: Synthesize missing audio frames from prior signal (pitch repetition, neural PLC)
TLS 1.3
security · medium: The standard encrypted, authenticated transport; one round trip, only forward-secret AEAD suites, and little left to misconfigure.
›
ARIES recovery
storage · medium: Three-pass crash recovery (analysis, redo, undo) for steal/no-force buffer pools; repeats history, then rolls back losers with compensation log records.
›
Syscall interception
security · medium: Intercept syscalls via ptrace, seccomp user notify or a user-space kernel
Buffer pool
storage · medium: The database's own page cache (frames, page table, pin counts, dirty bits, replacement) so it, not the OS, controls eviction, write order and I/O.
›
HTTP caching semantics
networking · low: The rules (RFC 9111) that decide whether a stored response is still fresh, and how a cheap conditional request revalidates it when it is not.
›
Adaptive streaming manifests
media · low: HLS playlists and DASH MPDs: renditions, segment timelines, codecs strings
GOP structure
media · low: How an encoder orders I, P and B frames into groups of pictures: the knob behind seekability, compression, latency and stream switching.
›
Media containers
media · low: MP4/ISO BMFF, fragmented MP4/CMAF, Matroska and MPEG-TS mux/demux
A/V sync and media clocks
media · low: How audio and video stay lip-synced: per-stream timebases, PTS/DTS, PCR and RTCP clock mapping, and a master clock that slave streams chase by dropping, repeating or resampling.
›
RTP and RTCP
media · low: RTP stamps each media packet with sequence number, media-clock timestamp and source ID; RTCP reports loss, jitter, round trip and clock mapping within a bandwidth cap.
›
BBR congestion control
networking · low: Model-based congestion control that paces at the measured bottleneck bandwidth and caps inflight near one BDP, instead of reacting to loss.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Consistent hashing
distributed · low: Hash nodes and keys onto a ring; each key belongs to the next node clockwise, so membership changes move only about 1/n of keys.
›
Reliable UDP
game-networking · low: Transport over UDP: each packet carries a sequence number, an ack and a 32-bit ack history; only chosen messages are made reliable.
›
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
›
Hardware video acceleration
media · low: GPU/ASIC encode and decode APIs (NVENC, VideoToolbox, VA-API) with zero-copy surfaces
Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
›
Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
›
Request coalescing
systems · low: Collapse concurrent identical requests into one backend fetch (singleflight)
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
Record replay
distributed · low: Record every nondeterministic input (time, randomness, I/O, model and tool outputs, per-tick player input) and re-execute deterministically for debugging, replays and state rebuild
PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
›
Leases
distributed · low: A lock that expires on its own: bounded-time ownership that survives crashes and partitions, given bounded clock drift and fencing tokens on writes.
›
Write-ahead log
storage · low: Append each change to a checksummed sequential log and fsync it before touching data pages; the basis of crash durability in nearly every database.
›
Health checking
systems · low: Decide per backend whether to route to it using probes and real-traffic errors, with consecutive-count hysteresis, capped ejection and a panic fallback.
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HTTP range requests
networking · low: Ask for byte offsets with Range and get a 206 slice back; the standard way to resume, seek and read big remote files piecewise.
›
Exponential smoothing (ETS, Holt-Wi…
statistics · low: Forecast by keeping a few running states (level, trend, seasonal) updated by a fraction of each forecast error; O(1) memory per series and a strong baseline.
›
HTTP/2
networking · low: Binary multiplexed framing for HTTP over one TCP connection: streams, per-stream and per-connection credit windows, HPACK header compression and the limits that contain abuse.
›
Long polling
networking · low: The client asks "anything after cursor X?"; the server holds the request until there is news or a timeout, and the client immediately asks again.
›
Adaptive quantization
media · low: Per-block QP offsets driven by local texture energy: spend bits on flat areas where blocking shows, save them where texture masks the error.
›
Scene cut detection
media · low: Detect shot changes from frame-difference statistics
Path mtu discovery
networking · low: PMTUD and PLPMTUD to size packets for tunnels without fragmentation
Selective repeat arq
networking · low: Selective-repeat ARQ with windows, status reports and in-order reassembly
AEAD (AES-GCM, ChaCha20-Poly1305)
security · low: Authenticated encryption that encrypts and detects tampering in one call; the only kind of symmetric encryption you should use.
›
Code coverage instrumentation
compilers · low: Insert counters into compiled code to record which blocks, edges or lines ran; a spanning tree of the control-flow graph cuts the counters needed.
›
Fast hash functions
data-structures · low: Non-cryptographic hashes built from 64×64→128-bit multiplies and xor-shifts; pick by key size, trust level and whether the hash is persisted.
›
Sanitizers
security · low: ASan/UBSan/TSan shadow memory and instrumentation to catch memory bugs
Object storage
cloud · low: S3-compatible blob storage at cents per GB-month with 11 nines durability; pick by egress price, request price and latency, not by storage price alone.
›
Copy on write snapshots
storage · low: Point-in-time snapshots by sharing pages/extents and copying only on write
Failure bisection
search-sort · low: Binary search over commits, batches or inputs to isolate a failure
Transparent interception
networking · low: Redirect traffic to a local proxy (iptables TPROXY/REDIRECT, eBPF) without app changes
Recurrent networks
machine-learning · low: GRU and LSTM cells for streaming sequence models
Linear predictive coding (LPC)
media · low: Predict each sample from the previous p; code only the small prediction error plus p coefficients. Core of FLAC, speech codecs and the Opus SILK layer.
›
Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
›
ECDH key exchange (X25519, P-256)
security · low: Each side multiplies the other's public curve point by its own scalar and both get the same point; always validate the peer key and run the result through a KDF.
›
HKDF key derivation (extract-and-ex…
security · low: HMAC-based two-step key derivation: extract a uniform pseudorandom key from any secret, then expand it into as many context-bound keys as you need.
›
X509 certificates
security · low: Certificate chains, path validation, SANs, revocation and short-lived issuance
Ebpf
hardware-os · low: Verified in-kernel programs on hooks (kprobes, XDP, tc) with maps
Ptrace process control
hardware-os · low: Ptrace: attach, read and write registers and memory, single-step, intercept signals
Seccomp bpf
security · low: Syscall filtering with seccomp BPF programs
fsync, O_DSYNC and O_DIRECT
hardware-os · low: What fsync, fdatasync, O_DSYNC, O_DIRECT and F_FULLFSYNC really guarantee on Linux and macOS, and the exact call sequences for crash-safe files.
›
LRU and CLOCK
systems · low: LRU evicts the least recently used entry via hash map plus linked list; CLOCK approximates it with a reference bit, so hits take no lock.
›
S3-FIFO
systems · low: Three FIFO queues (small, main, ghost) that evict one-hit wonders quickly and keep reused objects; low miss ratios with no list moves on hits.
›
Control-flow graph
compilers · low: Split a linear instruction list into basic blocks and connect them by jumps; the graph every optimizer, SSA builder and dataflow pass walks.
›
d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
›
Fencing tokens
distributed · low: A number that grows with every lock grant and is checked by the protected resource, so a paused ex-holder's late write is rejected.
›
Message sequence numbers
distributed · low: A per-stream counter on every message lets the receiver detect loss, duplicates and reordering, ack cheaply and resume after reconnect with "send from N".
›
Bitstream serialization
game-networking · low: A bit writer and reader over a byte buffer that stores each field in exactly the bits its range needs: booleans in 1 bit, bounded integers in ceil(log2(span+1)) bits.
›
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
›
Minimum spanning tree
graphs · low: Cheapest set of edges connecting all vertices; Kruskal sorts edges and joins components with union-find, Prim grows one tree, Boruvka merges in parallel rounds.
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Union-find
graphs · low: Disjoint-set forest with union by size and path compression; merges sets and answers same-set queries in effectively constant time.
›
CRC32C checksums
hardware-os · low: The Castagnoli CRC-32 with dedicated instructions on x86 (SSE4.2) and ARMv8. It is the standard fast integrity check for storage blocks, logs and network frames.
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SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
›
Perceptual quality metrics (PSNR, S…
media · low: Full-reference scores that say how bad a compressed picture looks: PSNR (pixel error), SSIM (structure), VMAF (learned fusion), and when each one lies.
›
Video codecs
media · low: H.264/HEVC/AV1 basics: frames, GOPs, hardware decode/encode APIs and latency settings
Discrete cosine transform
numerics · low: Fast integer DCT/DST block transforms used by image and video codecs
Sparse matrices (CSR)
numerics · low: Compressed sparse row stores only nonzeros as row pointers, column indices and values; SpMV streams them once, so it is memory-bandwidth bound.
›
Scalar quantization
search-sort · low: Per-dimension int8/binary quantization of vectors with rescoring
Constant time code
security · low: Writing secret-dependent code without branches or memory lookups on secrets; constant-time compare and select
Csprng
security · low: OS-backed cryptographically secure random numbers (getrandom), and when a fast PRNG is not enough
Biquad filters
signal-processing · low: Second-order IIR sections (RBJ cookbook): low/high pass, peaking EQ; stable cascades
IIR and FIR filters
signal-processing · low: Two ways to shape a sampled signal's spectrum: FIR (finite taps, always stable, exact linear phase) or IIR (feedback, a few coefficients, cheap but phase-distorting).
›
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