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Security and identity
kyc
identity verification / KYC
Onfido
System
Techniques · 19
Primitives · 73
kyc
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
Face embeddings
machine-learning · medium: Face recognition embeddings trained with margin softmax (ArcFace, CosFace) and threshold-based verification
Image forensics
machine-learning · medium: Detecting edited or synthetic images: error level analysis, noise residuals, learned manipulation detectors
Liveness detection
machine-learning · medium: Presentation attack detection for faces: challenge-response, depth/texture cues, replay detection
Object detection
machine-learning · medium: A network turns an image into scored, classified boxes in one pass; anchor-based, anchor-free and set-prediction heads differ in how they assign labels and remove duplicates.
›
Optical character recognition (text…
machine-learning · medium: Find text lines in an image, read each crop with a CTC or attention model, then correct with a lexicon and score confidence for review routing.
›
Facial landmark alignment
machine-learning · low: Detecting facial keypoints and warping faces to a canonical pose before embedding
Convolutional networks
ml-training · low: Layers that slide a small shared kernel over a grid, giving translation equivariance and few parameters; still the most compute-efficient choice for many vision tasks.
›
Connectionist temporal classificati…
machine-learning · low: Alignment-free sequence loss that sums the probability of every frame-to-label alignment with a blank symbol, using a dynamic program.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Mrz check digits
data-structures · low: Parsing passport/ID machine-readable zones and validating their 7-3-1 weighted check digits
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
›
Calibration
machine-learning · low: Make predicted probabilities match observed frequencies: measure with ECE, fix post hoc with temperature, Platt or isotonic scaling on held-out data.
›
Evaluation metrics
machine-learning · low: Precision, recall, ROC AUC, average precision, log loss, NDCG and pass@k computed correctly, plus paired confidence intervals for comparing models.
›
Edit distance
search-sort · low: Levenshtein/Damerau distance by DP, bit-parallel Myers variant
AEAD (AES-GCM, ChaCha20-Poly1305)
security · low: Authenticated encryption that encrypts and detects tampering in one call; the only kind of symmetric encryption you should use.
›
Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
›
Secrets management
security · low: Keep keys and passwords out of code and logs, give workloads short-lived identity instead of static keys, and make rotation routine.
›
Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
›
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
Record replay
distributed · low: Record every nondeterministic input (time, randomness, I/O, model and tool outputs, per-tick player input) and re-execute deterministically for debugging, replays and state rebuild
PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
›
+ 12 more techniques
+ 57 more primitives
System
Techniques · 19
Primitives · 73
kyc
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
Face embeddings
machine-learning · medium: Face recognition embeddings trained with margin softmax (ArcFace, CosFace) and threshold-based verification
Image forensics
machine-learning · medium: Detecting edited or synthetic images: error level analysis, noise residuals, learned manipulation detectors
Liveness detection
machine-learning · medium: Presentation attack detection for faces: challenge-response, depth/texture cues, replay detection
Object detection
machine-learning · medium: A network turns an image into scored, classified boxes in one pass; anchor-based, anchor-free and set-prediction heads differ in how they assign labels and remove duplicates.
›
Optical character recognition (text…
machine-learning · medium: Find text lines in an image, read each crop with a CTC or attention model, then correct with a lexicon and score confidence for review routing.
›
HNSW
search-sort · medium: Hierarchical Navigable Small World: a layered proximity graph searched greedily from a sparse top layer; the default in-memory approximate nearest-neighbour index.
›
Coverage-guided fuzzing
security · medium: Mutate inputs, run an instrumented target, and keep any input that reaches a new code edge; feedback turns blind guessing into incremental search.
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Entity resolution
storage · medium: Decide which records describe the same real-world thing: block to cut the pair space, score pairs with a probabilistic model, cluster the matches transitively.
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Point-in-time recovery
storage · medium: Periodic base backups plus a continuously archived change log let you rebuild the state as of any instant, then branch from there.
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Delta debugging
compilers · medium: Ddmin minimization of failing inputs or change sets
Fault injection
distributed · medium: Inject latency, errors, kills and partitions via proxies, netem or hooks
Record linkage
search-sort · medium: Probabilistic record matching (Fellegi-Sunter) with blocking for patient or entity indexes
ARIES recovery
storage · medium: Three-pass crash recovery (analysis, redo, undo) for steal/no-force buffer pools; repeats history, then rolls back losers with compensation log records.
›
Inverted index
storage · medium: Map each term to a sorted, compressed list of the documents containing it; the core of full-text search and other fast set queries.
›
Near-duplicate detection with MinHa…
machine-learning · medium: Estimate set Jaccard similarity from k min-hashes and find similar pairs with banded LSH buckets; the standard dedup for web crawls, training corpora and sequence collections.
›
Syscall interception
security · medium: Intercept syscalls via ptrace, seccomp user notify or a user-space kernel
Buffer pool
storage · medium: The database's own page cache (frames, page table, pin counts, dirty bits, replacement) so it, not the OS, controls eviction, write order and I/O.
›
Facial landmark alignment
machine-learning · low: Detecting facial keypoints and warping faces to a canonical pose before embedding
Convolutional networks
ml-training · low: Layers that slide a small shared kernel over a grid, giving translation equivariance and few parameters; still the most compute-efficient choice for many vision tasks.
›
Connectionist temporal classificati…
machine-learning · low: Alignment-free sequence loss that sums the probability of every frame-to-label alignment with a blank symbol, using a dynamic program.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Mrz check digits
data-structures · low: Parsing passport/ID machine-readable zones and validating their 7-3-1 weighted check digits
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
›
Calibration
machine-learning · low: Make predicted probabilities match observed frequencies: measure with ECE, fix post hoc with temperature, Platt or isotonic scaling on held-out data.
›
Evaluation metrics
machine-learning · low: Precision, recall, ROC AUC, average precision, log loss, NDCG and pass@k computed correctly, plus paired confidence intervals for comparing models.
›
Edit distance
search-sort · low: Levenshtein/Damerau distance by DP, bit-parallel Myers variant
AEAD (AES-GCM, ChaCha20-Poly1305)
security · low: Authenticated encryption that encrypts and detects tampering in one call; the only kind of symmetric encryption you should use.
›
Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
›
Secrets management
security · low: Keep keys and passwords out of code and logs, give workloads short-lived identity instead of static keys, and make rotation routine.
›
Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
›
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
Record replay
distributed · low: Record every nondeterministic input (time, randomness, I/O, model and tool outputs, per-tick player input) and re-execute deterministically for debugging, replays and state rebuild
PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
›
Leases
distributed · low: A lock that expires on its own: bounded-time ownership that survives crashes and partitions, given bounded clock drift and fencing tokens on writes.
›
Write-ahead log
storage · low: Append each change to a checksummed sequential log and fsync it before touching data pages; the basis of crash durability in nearly every database.
›
Health checking
systems · low: Decide per backend whether to route to it using probes and real-traffic errors, with consecutive-count hysteresis, capped ejection and a panic fallback.
›
Loss functions
machine-learning · low: The scalar a model minimizes: cross-entropy for classes and tokens, MSE or Huber for values, each with a stable form and simple gradient.
›
Normalization layers
machine-learning · low: Standardize activations per batch, token or group with a learned scale so deep nets train fast and stably; RMSNorm in LLMs, BatchNorm in convnets.
›
Image codecs
media · low: JPEG (DCT, Huffman), PNG, HEIF/AVIF decoding and encoding fundamentals
Discrete cosine transform
numerics · low: Fast integer DCT/DST block transforms used by image and video codecs
Data augmentation
machine-learning · low: Generate label-preserving variants of each training example on the fly to enlarge the effective dataset and bake in invariances.
›
Non-maximum suppression
machine-learning · low: Keep the best-scoring candidate in each neighbourhood and drop the rest; greedy NMS, Soft-NMS and 1-D peak picking share one loop.
›
Document image preprocessing
machine-learning · low: Turn a scan or phone photo into an upright, evenly lit, binarised or normalised grey page so layout analysis and OCR read it reliably.
›
Transformer block
ml-training · low: The decoder-only pre-norm block (attention plus MLP on a residual stream) behind every modern LLM, with exact shapes, parameter, FLOP and KV-cache counts.
›
d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
›
SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
›
Scalar quantization
search-sort · low: Per-dimension int8/binary quantization of vectors with rescoring
Code coverage instrumentation
compilers · low: Insert counters into compiled code to record which blocks, edges or lines ran; a spanning tree of the control-flow graph cuts the counters needed.
›
Fast hash functions
data-structures · low: Non-cryptographic hashes built from 64×64→128-bit multiplies and xor-shifts; pick by key size, trust level and whether the hash is persisted.
›
Sanitizers
security · low: ASan/UBSan/TSan shadow memory and instrumentation to catch memory bugs
Union-find
graphs · low: Disjoint-set forest with union by size and path compression; merges sets and answers same-set queries in effectively constant time.
›
Embeddings
machine-learning · low: A learned table mapping discrete ids to dense vectors: gather forward, sparse scatter-add backward, row-wise optimizers to keep huge tables cheap.
›
Object storage
cloud · low: S3-compatible blob storage at cents per GB-month with 11 nines durability; pick by egress price, request price and latency, not by storage price alone.
›
Copy on write snapshots
storage · low: Point-in-time snapshots by sharing pages/extents and copying only on write
Failure bisection
search-sort · low: Binary search over commits, batches or inputs to isolate a failure
Transparent interception
networking · low: Redirect traffic to a local proxy (iptables TPROXY/REDIRECT, eBPF) without app changes
Linear and logistic regression
machine-learning · low: Fit a weighted sum of features to a number (least squares) or a probability (logistic); the baseline every model must beat.
›
Fuzzy string matching
search-sort · low: Edit distance, Jaro-Winkler and trigram indexes for approximate name and address matching
Bit packing and PFOR
compression · low: Store blocks of integers with exactly b bits each and patch rare outliers separately (PFOR); the fastest integer codec family, billions of values per second.
›
Delta encoding
compression · low: Store differences between consecutive values instead of the values, turning sorted IDs, timestamps and counters into small numbers that pack into few bits.
›
Varint (LEB128)
compression · low: Variable-length integers in 7-bit groups with a continuation bit; small numbers take 1 byte, the wire format of Protobuf, WebAssembly and DWARF.
›
BM25 ranking
search-sort · low: The standard lexical relevance score: IDF-weighted term frequency with saturation (k1) and length normalization (b); default in Lucene, Elasticsearch and SQLite FTS5.
›
Sorted-list intersection
search-sort · low: Intersect sorted id lists by merging, galloping from the short list into the long one, and skipping whole compressed blocks, shortest list first.
›
Rolling hash
data-structures · low: Rabin-Karp polynomial rolling hashes and winnowing for substring fingerprints and document matching
Swiss table
data-structures · low: Open-addressing hash table that filters 8-16 slots at once with 1-byte hash tags and SIMD, giving fast lookups at 87.5 % load.
›
Ebpf
hardware-os · low: Verified in-kernel programs on hooks (kprobes, XDP, tc) with maps
Ptrace process control
hardware-os · low: Ptrace: attach, read and write registers and memory, single-step, intercept signals
Seccomp bpf
security · low: Syscall filtering with seccomp BPF programs
fsync, O_DSYNC and O_DIRECT
hardware-os · low: What fsync, fdatasync, O_DSYNC, O_DIRECT and F_FULLFSYNC really guarantee on Linux and macOS, and the exact call sequences for crash-safe files.
›
LRU and CLOCK
systems · low: LRU evicts the least recently used entry via hash map plus linked list; CLOCK approximates it with a reference bit, so hits take no lock.
›
S3-FIFO
systems · low: Three FIFO queues (small, main, ghost) that evict one-hit wonders quickly and keep reused objects; low miss ratios with no list moves on hits.
›
Control-flow graph
compilers · low: Split a linear instruction list into basic blocks and connect them by jumps; the graph every optimizer, SSA builder and dataflow pass walks.
›
Fencing tokens
distributed · low: A number that grows with every lock grant and is checked by the protected resource, so a paused ex-holder's late write is rejected.
›
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
›
Minimum spanning tree
graphs · low: Cheapest set of edges connecting all vertices; Kruskal sorts edges and joins components with union-find, Prim grows one tree, Boruvka merges in parallel rounds.
›
CRC32C checksums
hardware-os · low: The Castagnoli CRC-32 with dedicated instructions on x86 (SSE4.2) and ARMv8. It is the standard fast integrity check for storage blocks, logs and network frames.
›
Text normalization
machine-learning · low: Rewrite messy text into one canonical form for matchers and models, or into spoken words for speech output (and back), keeping a map to the original offsets.
›
AdamW
ml-training · low: Adam's per-parameter adaptive steps with weight decay applied directly to the weights; the default optimizer for transformers and LLM pretraining.
›
Reverse-mode automatic differentiat…
ml-training · low: Record the forward computation on a tape, then sweep it backwards once to get the gradient of a scalar loss for all inputs.
›
L-BFGS
numerics · low: Quasi-Newton minimizer that approximates the inverse Hessian from the last m gradient differences via the two-loop recursion; O(m·n) memory and work per step.
›
LU and Cholesky factorization
numerics · low: Factor A = PLU (any square matrix, partial pivoting) or A = LLᵀ (SPD) once in O(n³), then solve each right-hand side in O(n²).
›
Sparse matrices (CSR)
numerics · low: Compressed sparse row stores only nonzeros as row pointers, column indices and values; SpMV streams them once, so it is memory-bandwidth bound.
›
Top-k selection
search-sort · low: Keep the k best of n items without sorting all n - bounded min-heap for streams, quickselect for arrays, threshold pruning to skip most items.
›
Unicode text tokenization for search
search-sort · low: Turn multilingual text into index terms: segment words (UAX 29 style, CJK bigrams), normalize, case-fold and accent-fold, identically at index and query time.
›
Constant time code
security · low: Writing secret-dependent code without branches or memory lookups on secrets; constant-time compare and select
Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
›
Csprng
security · low: OS-backed cryptographically secure random numbers (getrandom), and when a fast PRNG is not enough
JSON Web Token (JWT)
security · low: A signed, URL-safe token carrying claims; the verifier's job is the checklist (pinned algorithm, key by kid, exp, aud, iss), not the format.
›
OAuth 2 and OpenID Connect
security · low: Delegated authorization (OAuth 2) and login on top of it (OIDC); use authorization code + PKCE for every user-facing client.
›
Bootstrap confidence intervals
statistics · low: Resampling-based confidence intervals for arbitrary statistics
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