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SystemTechniques · 17Primitives · 74 knowledge-base Citation groundingagentic-ai · medium: Attaching answer spans to retrieved source passages and verifying each claim is supportedCDN and edgecloud · medium: CDNs cache content in hundreds of PoPs near users, cutting latency and egress bills; edge compute runs small code there. Bandwidth price spreads 10x between providers.›Deterministic simulation testingdistributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.›Primary-backup replicationdistributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.›Rich text document modelgraphics · medium: Schema-constrained document trees with marks, positions and transactional steps (ProseMirror-style)Cross-encoder rerankingsearch-sort · medium: Re-score the top-k candidates of a cheap first stage with a model that reads query and candidate together; more accurate than separate embeddings, but one model call per pair.›Myers diffsearch-sort · medium: Greedy O(ND) shortest edit script between two sequences, the default of git and GNU diff; fast when the inputs are similar.›Text chunkingmachine-learning · low: Cut documents into token-bounded pieces along structure boundaries, keeping offsets and section paths, so each piece embeds well and can be cited.›HTTP caching semanticsnetworking · low: The rules (RFC 9111) that decide whether a stored response is still fresh, and how a cheap conditional request revalidates it when it is not.›BM25 rankingsearch-sort · low: The standard lexical relevance score: IDF-weighted term frequency with saturation (k1) and length normalization (b); default in Lucene, Elasticsearch and SQLite FTS5.›Hdr histogramdata-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentilesProcess supervisionhardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.›Embeddingsmachine-learning · low: A learned table mapping discrete ids to dense vectors: gather forward, sparse scatter-add backward, row-wise optimizers to keep huge tables cheap.›Language identificationmachine-learning · low: Score a text's character n-grams against per-language statistics, after a cheap script check, and return an ISO 639 code with a confidence or "und".›Image codecsmedia · low: JPEG (DCT, Huffman), PNG, HEIF/AVIF decoding and encoding fundamentalsHybrid search and rank fusionsearch-sort · low: Merge a keyword (BM25) result list and a vector (ANN) list into one ranking, by ranks (RRF) or by normalized scores (convex combination).›Query expansionsearch-sort · low: Rewriting queries with synonyms, pseudo-relevance feedback or LLM-generated variants (multi-query, HyDE)Stemmingsearch-sort · low: Porter/Snowball suffix stripping and lemmatisation for term normalisationAuthorization models (RBAC, ABAC, R…security · low: How to decide who may do what to which object; roles for coarse rules, relationships for sharing, and checks on every object.›Html sanitizationsecurity · low: Allowlist-based HTML sanitizing of untrusted markupMutual TLSsecurity · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.›OAuth 2 and OpenID Connectsecurity · low: Delegated authorization (OAuth 2) and login on top of it (OIDC); use authorization code + PKCE for every user-facing client.›Sessionizationstorage · low: Group events into sessions by inactivity gaps+ 10 more techniques+ 58 more primitives

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