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Agentic AI
agent-runtime
agent loop with tool use
Claude Code
System
Techniques · 28
Primitives · 103
agent-runtime
Model context protocol
agentic-ai · medium: JSON-RPC protocol exposing tools, resources and prompts from servers to LLM clients, with capability negotiation
Prompt injection defense
agentic-ai · medium: Treat every untrusted string as data, track where values came from, and make tool calls and rendered output depend on provenance, not on what the model says.
›
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
Coverage-guided fuzzing
security · medium: Mutate inputs, run an instrumented target, and keep any input that reaches a new code edge; feedback turns blind guessing into incremental search.
›
Point-in-time recovery
storage · medium: Periodic base backups plus a continuously archived change log let you rebuild the state as of any instant, then branch from there.
›
Memory consolidation
agentic-ai · medium: Periodically merge near-duplicate memories, resolve contradictions, decay the unused and cap the store, so an agent's long-term memory stays small, current and cheap to search.
›
Json rpc
networking · low: JSON-RPC 2.0 requests, notifications and batching
Server-sent events
networking · low: One long-lived HTTP response carries text events one way; each event may carry an id, so a reconnecting client names its last one and the server resumes.
›
JSON Schema validation
security · low: Compile a JSON Schema once, then check every untrusted document against it, within hard size and depth limits, and report failures as JSON Pointers.
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Least privilege and isolation
security · low: Assume every component will be compromised and limit what it can then reach: narrow identities, separate accounts, sandboxed processes.
›
Byte-pair encoding (BPE) tokenizati…
machine-learning · low: Learn a subword vocabulary by repeatedly merging the most frequent adjacent pair; byte-level BPE encodes any input losslessly with 32k-200k tokens.
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Agent loop
agentic-ai · unknown:
Agent memory
agentic-ai · unknown:
Agent sandboxing
agentic-ai · unknown:
Agent tracing
agentic-ai · unknown:
Constrained decoding
agentic-ai · low: Force LLM output to match a regex, JSON schema or grammar by masking, at every step, the tokens that would leave the language.
›
Context window management
agentic-ai · low: Keep an agent's growing history inside the model's window by truncating, clearing and summarizing old turns in a cheap-to-lossy ladder, at turn boundaries.
›
Prompt caching
agentic-ai · low: Reuse the attention keys/values of a repeated prompt prefix, so an agent's growing context is prefilled once and later turns pay only for the new tokens.
›
Subagent orchestration
agentic-ai · unknown:
Task planning
agentic-ai · unknown:
Tool calling
agentic-ai · low: The model emits a structured call (id, name, JSON arguments) instead of prose; your code validates, runs it and returns a result tagged with the same id.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
+ 21 more techniques
+ 87 more primitives
System
Techniques · 28
Primitives · 103
agent-runtime
Model context protocol
agentic-ai · medium: JSON-RPC protocol exposing tools, resources and prompts from servers to LLM clients, with capability negotiation
Prompt injection defense
agentic-ai · medium: Treat every untrusted string as data, track where values came from, and make tool calls and rendered output depend on provenance, not on what the model says.
›
Deterministic simulation testing
distributed · medium: Run the whole system in one thread under a seeded scheduler with simulated network, disk and clock, so every failure replays from its seed.
›
Primary-backup replication
distributed · medium: One node orders all writes and ships them to standbys; the acknowledgement rule (none, one, all) sets what a crash loses, and an external arbiter decides who takes over.
›
Coverage-guided fuzzing
security · medium: Mutate inputs, run an instrumented target, and keep any input that reaches a new code edge; feedback turns blind guessing into incremental search.
›
Point-in-time recovery
storage · medium: Periodic base backups plus a continuously archived change log let you rebuild the state as of any instant, then branch from there.
›
Memory consolidation
agentic-ai · medium: Periodically merge near-duplicate memories, resolve contradictions, decay the unused and cap the store, so an agent's long-term memory stays small, current and cheap to search.
›
Delta debugging
compilers · medium: Ddmin minimization of failing inputs or change sets
Fault injection
distributed · medium: Inject latency, errors, kills and partitions via proxies, netem or hooks
Text classification
machine-learning · medium: Assign one or more labels to a text; climb a ladder from regexes to linear models on n-grams, embeddings, fine-tuned encoders and LLM prompts, only as far as the data and budget demand.
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HNSW
search-sort · medium: Hierarchical Navigable Small World: a layered proximity graph searched greedily from a sparse top layer; the default in-memory approximate nearest-neighbour index.
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Egress proxy filtering
security · medium: Forcing sandbox network traffic through a proxy with domain allowlists, TLS SNI checks and request logging
Microvm isolation
security · medium: Minimal KVM-based VMs (Firecracker-style) with tiny device model, fast boot and snapshot restore
Process sandboxing
security · medium: Run risky work in a separate, deliberately powerless process and let a small privileged broker do the few things it needs, over a narrow pipe.
›
Taint tracking
security · medium: Track untrusted sources to sensitive sinks through dataflow
Unicode confusables
security · medium: UTS #39 maps every string to a "skeleton" so look-alikes collide, and restricts script mixing so most spoofs never get registered.
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ARIES recovery
storage · medium: Three-pass crash recovery (analysis, redo, undo) for steal/no-force buffer pools; repeats history, then rolls back losers with compensation log records.
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Distributed tracing
systems · medium: Give each request a 128-bit id, record timed spans linked by parent ids, pass the ids in a header across every hop, and join the spans back into a tree afterwards.
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Telemetry sampling
systems · medium: Head, tail and dynamic sampling of traces, events and logs to a budget
Dataflow analysis
compilers · medium: Compute a fact per program point (live variables, reaching definitions, available expressions) by iterating transfer functions over the CFG to a fixed point.
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Near-duplicate detection with MinHa…
machine-learning · medium: Estimate set Jaccard similarity from k min-hashes and find similar pairs with banded LSH buckets; the standard dedup for web crawls, training corpora and sequence collections.
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Syscall interception
security · medium: Intercept syscalls via ptrace, seccomp user notify or a user-space kernel
Buffer pool
storage · medium: The database's own page cache (frames, page table, pin counts, dirty bits, replacement) so it, not the OS, controls eviction, write order and I/O.
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Columnar storage
storage · medium: Store each column contiguously so analytic scans read only the columns they need, compress well and run as tight SIMD loops.
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Entity resolution
storage · medium: Decide which records describe the same real-world thing: block to cut the pair space, score pairs with a probabilistic model, cluster the matches transitively.
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Record linkage
search-sort · medium: Probabilistic record matching (Fellegi-Sunter) with blocking for patient or entity indexes
Inverted index
storage · medium: Map each term to a sorted, compressed list of the documents containing it; the core of full-text search and other fast set queries.
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Vectorized execution
storage · medium: Query operators pass batches of about 1-2K values per column instead of single tuples, amortizing interpretation overhead and enabling tight SIMD loops.
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Json rpc
networking · low: JSON-RPC 2.0 requests, notifications and batching
Server-sent events
networking · low: One long-lived HTTP response carries text events one way; each event may carry an id, so a reconnecting client names its last one and the server resumes.
›
JSON Schema validation
security · low: Compile a JSON Schema once, then check every untrusted document against it, within hard size and depth limits, and report failures as JSON Pointers.
›
Least privilege and isolation
security · low: Assume every component will be compromised and limit what it can then reach: narrow identities, separate accounts, sandboxed processes.
›
Byte-pair encoding (BPE) tokenizati…
machine-learning · low: Learn a subword vocabulary by repeatedly merging the most frequent adjacent pair; byte-level BPE encodes any input losslessly with 32k-200k tokens.
›
Agent loop
agentic-ai · unknown:
Agent memory
agentic-ai · unknown:
Agent sandboxing
agentic-ai · unknown:
Agent tracing
agentic-ai · unknown:
Constrained decoding
agentic-ai · low: Force LLM output to match a regex, JSON schema or grammar by masking, at every step, the tokens that would leave the language.
›
Context window management
agentic-ai · low: Keep an agent's growing history inside the model's window by truncating, clearing and summarizing old turns in a cheap-to-lossy ladder, at turn boundaries.
›
Prompt caching
agentic-ai · low: Reuse the attention keys/values of a repeated prompt prefix, so an agent's growing context is prefilled once and later turns pay only for the new tokens.
›
Subagent orchestration
agentic-ai · unknown:
Task planning
agentic-ai · unknown:
Tool calling
agentic-ai · low: The model emits a structured call (id, name, JSON arguments) instead of prose; your code validates, runs it and returns a result tagged with the same id.
›
Hdr histogram
data-structures · low: Log-linear bucketed histograms with bounded relative error for latency percentiles
Event sourcing
finance · low: Persist state changes as an append-only stream of immutable events per entity; current state is a fold over them, guarded by expected-version appends.
›
Process supervision
hardware-os · low: A parent process starts services, reaps their exits and restarts them under a delay and burst-limit policy, then stops them with SIGTERM before SIGKILL.
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Pseudo terminals
hardware-os · low: Pseudo-terminals, job control and terminal escape handling
Capability-based security (object c…
security · low: Authority is a handle you hold, not an identity you have: code can only act on objects it was explicitly given handles to, and handles can only be narrowed and passed on.
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Mutual TLS
security · low: TLS where the client also proves a certificate key, so every connection carries a verified, rotatable machine identity.
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Json streaming parser
storage · low: Streaming/zero-copy JSON parsing and in-place field rewriting
Exponential backoff with jitter
systems · low: Retry after delays that grow geometrically and are randomized, so failed clients spread out instead of hammering a recovering service in synchronized waves.
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Graceful draining
systems · low: On a termination signal, stop taking new work, finish in-flight work until a deadline, tell clients to reconnect elsewhere, then exit; clients resume from a token.
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OAuth 2 and OpenID Connect
security · low: Delegated authorization (OAuth 2) and login on top of it (OIDC); use authorization code + PKCE for every user-facing client.
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Html sanitization
security · low: Allowlist-based HTML sanitizing of untrusted markup
Cooperative scheduling
concurrency · low: Green threads/coroutines yielding at await points on a user-space scheduler
Record replay
distributed · low: Record every nondeterministic input (time, randomness, I/O, model and tool outputs, per-tick player input) and re-execute deterministically for debugging, replays and state rebuild
PRNGs (PCG, xoshiro)
numerics · low: Small, fast, statistically strong non-cryptographic generators: PCG32 and xoshiro256**, with seeding, parallel streams and unbiased ranges.
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Leases
distributed · low: A lock that expires on its own: bounded-time ownership that survives crashes and partitions, given bounded clock drift and fencing tokens on writes.
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Write-ahead log
storage · low: Append each change to a checksummed sequential log and fsync it before touching data pages; the basis of crash durability in nearly every database.
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Health checking
systems · low: Decide per backend whether to route to it using probes and real-traffic errors, with consecutive-count hysteresis, capped ejection and a panic fallback.
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Code coverage instrumentation
compilers · low: Insert counters into compiled code to record which blocks, edges or lines ran; a spanning tree of the control-flow graph cuts the counters needed.
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Fast hash functions
data-structures · low: Non-cryptographic hashes built from 64×64→128-bit multiplies and xor-shifts; pick by key size, trust level and whether the hash is persisted.
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Sanitizers
security · low: ASan/UBSan/TSan shadow memory and instrumentation to catch memory bugs
Object storage
cloud · low: S3-compatible blob storage at cents per GB-month with 11 nines durability; pick by egress price, request price and latency, not by storage price alone.
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Copy on write snapshots
storage · low: Point-in-time snapshots by sharing pages/extents and copying only on write
Embeddings
machine-learning · low: A learned table mapping discrete ids to dense vectors: gather forward, sparse scatter-add backward, row-wise optimizers to keep huge tables cheap.
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Time decay scoring
search-sort · low: Scoring items by recency with exponential decay or half-life, combined with relevance
Failure bisection
search-sort · low: Binary search over commits, batches or inputs to isolate a failure
Transparent interception
networking · low: Redirect traffic to a local proxy (iptables TPROXY/REDIRECT, eBPF) without app changes
Calibration
machine-learning · low: Make predicted probabilities match observed frequencies: measure with ECE, fix post hoc with temperature, Platt or isotonic scaling on held-out data.
›
Linear and logistic regression
machine-learning · low: Fit a weighted sum of features to a number (least squares) or a probability (logistic); the baseline every model must beat.
›
Transformer block
ml-training · low: The decoder-only pre-norm block (attention plus MLP on a residual stream) behind every modern LLM, with exact shapes, parameter, FLOP and KV-cache counts.
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d-ary heap
data-structures · low: Array heap with d children per node (d = 4 typical): half the binary heap's depth, siblings in one cache line, faster priority queues.
›
SIMD programming
hardware-os · low: Process 4-16 lanes per instruction with AVX2, AVX-512 or NEON via Rust std::arch, with runtime dispatch and a portable fallback.
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Scalar quantization
search-sort · low: Per-dimension int8/binary quantization of vectors with rescoring
DNS message format and client looku…
networking · low: Binary query/response format of DNS (RFC 1035) and how a stub client uses it: record types, name compression, UDP/TCP/EDNS sizes, TTL caching.
›
Http connect tunneling
networking · low: HTTP CONNECT tunnels for proxying TLS and arbitrary TCP
Public Suffix List
networking · low: Find the registrable domain (eTLD+1) of a host name by matching the longest rule in a community-maintained list of shared suffixes.
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Glob matching
search-sort · low: Glob/gitignore pattern matching without backtracking blowup
Cgroups and namespaces
hardware-os · low: Linux namespaces limit what a process can see; cgroup v2 limits and accounts what it may use. Containers, sandboxes and job schedulers are built from the two.
›
Hardware virtualization kvm
hardware-os · low: VT-x/AMD-V via KVM: vCPU run loop, VM exits, MMIO emulation
Nested paging ept
hardware-os · low: EPT/NPT two-level address translation for guests
Virtio devices
hardware-os · low: Virtqueue rings for paravirtual block, net and vsock devices
Seccomp bpf
security · low: Syscall filtering with seccomp BPF programs
Overlay filesystem
hardware-os · low: Union mounts (overlayfs) stacking read-only layers under a writable layer
Text normalization
machine-learning · low: Rewrite messy text into one canonical form for matchers and models, or into spoken words for speech output (and back), keeping a map to the original offsets.
›
Unicode text tokenization for search
search-sort · low: Turn multilingual text into index terms: segment words (UAX 29 style, CJK bigrams), normalize, case-fold and accent-fold, identically at index and query time.
›
Distributed ID generation
distributed · low: Mint unique, roughly time-sorted IDs on many nodes with no per-ID coordination: Snowflake (time, worker, sequence) or UUIDv7 (time, random).
›
Protobuf wire format
networking · low: Protocol Buffers wire format: tags, varints, length-delimited fields and schema evolution
Hash based sampling
data-structures · low: Deterministic sampling by hashing an entity id so all its events are kept or dropped together
Reservoir sampling
data-structures · low: Uniform k-sample from a stream of unknown length (Algorithm R/L)
Token bucket
systems · low: A bucket of up to b tokens refilled at rate r; requests spend tokens, enforcing an average rate while allowing bursts of b.
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Control-flow graph
compilers · low: Split a linear instruction list into basic blocks and connect them by jumps; the graph every optimizer, SSA builder and dataflow pass walks.
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Topological sort
graphs · low: Order the vertices of a DAG so every edge points forward; the core of build systems, schedulers and dependency resolution, with cycle detection for free.
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Rolling hash
data-structures · low: Rabin-Karp polynomial rolling hashes and winnowing for substring fingerprints and document matching
Swiss table
data-structures · low: Open-addressing hash table that filters 8-16 slots at once with 1-byte hash tags and SIMD, giving fast lookups at 87.5 % load.
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Ebpf
hardware-os · low: Verified in-kernel programs on hooks (kprobes, XDP, tc) with maps
Ptrace process control
hardware-os · low: Ptrace: attach, read and write registers and memory, single-step, intercept signals
fsync, O_DSYNC and O_DIRECT
hardware-os · low: What fsync, fdatasync, O_DSYNC, O_DIRECT and F_FULLFSYNC really guarantee on Linux and macOS, and the exact call sequences for crash-safe files.
›
LRU and CLOCK
systems · low: LRU evicts the least recently used entry via hash map plus linked list; CLOCK approximates it with a reference bit, so hits take no lock.
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S3-FIFO
systems · low: Three FIFO queues (small, main, ghost) that evict one-hit wonders quickly and keep reused objects; low miss ratios with no list moves on hits.
›
Bit packing and PFOR
compression · low: Store blocks of integers with exactly b bits each and patch rare outliers separately (PFOR); the fastest integer codec family, billions of values per second.
›
Delta encoding
compression · low: Store differences between consecutive values instead of the values, turning sorted IDs, timestamps and counters into small numbers that pack into few bits.
›
Dictionary encoding
compression · low: Map values to small integer codes via a dictionary for compact, comparable columns
Zone maps
storage · low: Per-block min/max (and sparse primary) indexes to skip data during scans
Union-find
graphs · low: Disjoint-set forest with union by size and path compression; merges sets and answers same-set queries in effectively constant time.
›
Fuzzy string matching
search-sort · low: Edit distance, Jaro-Winkler and trigram indexes for approximate name and address matching
Varint (LEB128)
compression · low: Variable-length integers in 7-bit groups with a continuation bit; small numbers take 1 byte, the wire format of Protobuf, WebAssembly and DWARF.
›
BM25 ranking
search-sort · low: The standard lexical relevance score: IDF-weighted term frequency with saturation (k1) and length normalization (b); default in Lucene, Elasticsearch and SQLite FTS5.
›
Sorted-list intersection
search-sort · low: Intersect sorted id lists by merging, galloping from the short list into the long one, and skipping whole compressed blocks, shortest list first.
›
Reference counting
compilers · low: Keep a count of owners in each object, free it when the count hits zero; deterministic and local, but pays on every copy and leaks cycles.
›
Radix trie
data-structures · low: Compressed prefix tree for path routing, domain matching and prefix lookups
Fencing tokens
distributed · low: A number that grows with every lock grant and is checked by the protected resource, so a paused ex-holder's late write is rejected.
›
BFS and DFS
graphs · low: The two basic graph traversals; BFS gives hop distances and levels, DFS gives discovery/finish order for cycles, components and topological order.
›
Minimum spanning tree
graphs · low: Cheapest set of edges connecting all vertices; Kruskal sorts edges and joins components with union-find, Prim grows one tree, Boruvka merges in parallel rounds.
›
CRC32C checksums
hardware-os · low: The Castagnoli CRC-32 with dedicated instructions on x86 (SSE4.2) and ARMv8. It is the standard fast integrity check for storage blocks, logs and network frames.
›
Loss functions
machine-learning · low: The scalar a model minimizes: cross-entropy for classes and tokens, MSE or Huber for values, each with a stable form and simple gradient.
›
Text chunking
machine-learning · low: Cut documents into token-bounded pieces along structure boundaries, keeping offsets and section paths, so each piece embeds well and can be cited.
›
AdamW
ml-training · low: Adam's per-parameter adaptive steps with weight decay applied directly to the weights; the default optimizer for transformers and LLM pretraining.
›
Paged KV cache
ml-training · low: Store each sequence's attention keys/values in fixed-size blocks mapped through a block table, like virtual memory pages; near-zero fragmentation and copy-on-write sharing.
›
Reverse-mode automatic differentiat…
ml-training · low: Record the forward computation on a tape, then sweep it backwards once to get the gradient of a scalar loss for all inputs.
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Token sampling
ml-training · low: Turn a vector of scores into one chosen item with temperature, top-k, top-p, min-p, repetition penalties and a seed.
›
L-BFGS
numerics · low: Quasi-Newton minimizer that approximates the inverse Hessian from the last m gradient differences via the two-loop recursion; O(m·n) memory and work per step.
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LU and Cholesky factorization
numerics · low: Factor A = PLU (any square matrix, partial pivoting) or A = LLᵀ (SPD) once in O(n³), then solve each right-hand side in O(n²).
›
Sparse matrices (CSR)
numerics · low: Compressed sparse row stores only nonzeros as row pointers, column indices and values; SpMV streams them once, so it is memory-bandwidth bound.
›
Finite state transducer
search-sort · low: Minimal acyclic FST mapping sorted keys to values; compact term dictionaries with prefix/fuzzy search
Top-k selection
search-sort · low: Keep the k best of n items without sorting all n - bounded min-heap for streams, quickselect for arrays, threshold pruning to skip most items.
›
Cryptographic hashes (SHA-2, BLAKE3)
security · low: Collision-resistant fingerprints of data; SHA-256 for interoperability, BLAKE3 for speed, HMAC/HKDF for keyed uses.
›
Csprng
security · low: OS-backed cryptographically secure random numbers (getrandom), and when a fast PRNG is not enough
JSON Web Token (JWT)
security · low: A signed, URL-safe token carrying claims; the verifier's job is the checklist (pinned algorithm, key by kid, exp, aud, iss), not the format.
›
Optimistic concurrency control
storage · low: Run transactions without locks, record what they read, and validate at commit that nothing changed; fastest when conflicts are rare.
›
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